Basic words: Basic vocabulary is the core part of a language's vocabulary, which is commonly used by all people, is stable, and has the ability to form words. Basic words are the core of vocabulary, form the basis of language, and are the most commonly used words in a language's vocabulary.

Basic words have three distinctive characteristics: ① Commonly used by all people, that is, the use of basic words is very common and universal, and it is universally used by all people regardless of region, class, strata, men, women, old and young. This is common to all basic words. Features. ② Stability, the basic words are in a relatively stable state, and the concepts of things represented by the basic words are stable and rarely change. ③Producibility. Basic words have a very strong ability to form new words. Some commonly used basic words can often form dozens or hundreds of words together with other components. Some basic words do not have the ability to form words, such as modal particles. , prepositions and other function words, but they are commonly used by all people, so they are still basic words

The three characteristics of basic words are complementary to each other, they are related to each other and influence each other. Its universality and national characteristics inevitably require the basic words to maintain relative stability. Basic words have the characteristics of universality and stability, and people naturally use them as the first choice material when constructing new words, because using familiar basic words to form new words is easier to be recognized and popularized. In this way, basic words have the characteristics of productivity; and the productivity characteristics of basic words further strengthen their characteristics of universality and stability. The mutual influence of these three aspects makes the importance of basic words in the vocabulary system more prominent.

The meaning of words can be divided into rational meaning and additional color meaning. Rational meaning is that part of a word's meaning that reflects people's rational understanding of the objective things that the word refers to. Words such as "hell", "ghost" and "Jade Emperor" whose meanings do not originate from have objective foundations. , is a distorted reflection of reality. The part of the word meaning that reflects the phenomenon of objective reality is the rational meaning.

Additional color is a meaning that expresses people's subjective attitudes and evaluations in addition to the rational meaning of the word. Additional colors are mainly divided into emotional color meanings and stylistic color meanings. The former refers to a person's subjective evaluation attitude towards the objective things referred to by the word. It mainly has two aspects: commendatory and derogatory. For example, "sacrifice" means praise, and "end" means derogation. "Death" has a neutral meaning, regardless of praise or blame; the latter refers to the style and color formed by the word often appearing on specific occasions, which can be mainly divided into spoken and written language. For example, "wife" and "wife" are mostly used in spoken language, which looks casual and natural, while "ma'am" is used in written language, which looks solemn and elegant. To understand the meaning of words, in addition to mastering the rational meaning, you must also pay attention to the additional color meaning so that you can use it correctly.

Word meaning is the meaning represented by a word. It is a general reflection of the essential characteristics of an objective thing or phenomenon and a subjective evaluation of the real phenomenon that is fixed in a certain phonetic form.

Word meaning is a general reflection of real phenomena. It does not reflect the characteristics of individual specific things, but reflects the common characteristics of similar things. Generality is an important feature of word meaning. For example, the meaning of the word "apple" summarizes the common characteristics of all apples in the world in terms of color, shape, taste, etc. The general characteristics of word meaning are embodied in three aspects: generality, vagueness and universality.

A word has multiple meanings, and these meanings are related to each other. The original meaning in a polysemy is called the original meaning, and the meaning derived from the original meaning is called the derived meaning. The status of multiple meanings of polysemous words is unequal. Some meanings are used more often and occupy a central position in a word, so this meaning is the central meaning, or the main meaning.

The way to derive word meaning is extension, which can be divided into two ways: metaphor and metonymy.

Synonyms are a group of words that have the same or similar meaning. The difference in meaning of synonyms is mainly reflected in the following aspects: ① The scope of the meaning of the word is large or small, and the degree is different; ② The attached color has different meanings, or the emotional color is different, and there are praise and blame; or There are different styles and colors, and there are differences between written language and spoken language. ③ Different collocation functions.

Words with opposite meanings are called antonyms. The meaning of antonyms generally reflects two opposite aspects of the same phenomenon. A word often has several antonyms at the same time depending on the different meanings it expresses. Antonyms have a contrasting role in rhetoric and can be used to reveal contradictions and highlight opposites. The real phenomena summarized by word meanings have various relationships. Synonyms are overlapping relationships, and antonyms are oppositional relationships. They are the unity of opposites.

The hypernym relationship of word meanings refers to the relationship between the phenomena reflected in word meanings that include and are included; the hypernym sense is more general and reflects more real-life phenomena than the hyponym sense; and the hyponym sense has richer conceptual connotation properties than the hypernym sense. , in addition to inheriting all the attributes of the superordinate sense, it also has its own unique attributes.

Word meanings are systematic, and there are various connections between word meanings. A common feature among them is that there are some same semantic features in the conceptual meanings of these words. Semantic features do not have a phonetic form and are often represented by a dichotomous notation method, which can more clearly see the relationship between word meanings.

The set of word meanings with the same semantic characteristics is called a semantic field. Word meanings within the same meaning field have a certain restrictive relationship with each other, which reflects the systematic structure of word meanings. Extracting different common semantic features will form different meaning fields, and there will be hierarchical or cross-relationships. Words that belong to the lower meaning field must also belong to the upper meaning field.

Understand the conditions for word combinations. The combination of word meanings is achieved through the collocation of words. On the one hand, the collocation of words is governed by grammatical rules; on the other hand, it is also restricted by semantic conditions.

The semantic conditions of word collocation are multifaceted. First of all, they must be restricted by the actual relationship between real phenomena. Relationships that do not exist in real phenomena, and the words expressing these phenomena cannot generally be used together except when describing fantasy or imagination and other special situations. Word collocation conditions in different languages ​​or dialects present different characteristics. For example, in Mandarin Chinese, the collocation object of "eat" is limited to solid food, while in dialects it can also be used with liquid food (such as drinking water, eating wine), and even gas (eating cigarettes, eating). Northwest wind)

Word matching should also take into account social usage habits, which is the so-called "usage".

Word collocation also involves various additional colors and rhetorical effects of word meanings. In addition to rational meaning, words usually have additional colors such as emotional color, stylistic color, and image color. When matching, not only the rational meaning must be matched, but also the additional color must be appropriate. It should be based on the expression needs of the specific context. Choose to use. The need for rhetorical effect, in addition to the appropriate combination of rational meaning and color meaning, also requires word combination in terms of implicitness, emphasis, and vividness of expression.

The semantic structure of a sentence is derived from the mapping relationship between language components and human experience. The limited number of "predicate-aspect" (i.e. "verb-noun relationship") relationship types is the semantic structure of the sentence. The collocation rules of predicates and aspect words in the semantic structure are the semantic rules of the sentence.

Grammatically, it conforms to the rules of grammatical structure, and semantically, it conforms to the rules of semantic structure. Only such sentences can be used as images of human experience.

The human experience image provided by the syntactic and semantic structure must be related to the speaker and "speaking time and space" in order to express "the human experience image belonging to the speaker", through the semantic categories related to "speaker, speaking place, speaking time" and It is realized by its expression, namely person, tense, indication, mood and modality.

Implication - the meaning of one sentence can be deduced from the meaning of another sentence, but the reverse inference is not valid.

Presupposition - If both the affirmative and negative forms of a sentence presuppose the affirmative form of another sentence, then the other sentence is the presupposition of the sentence.

Whether the "judgment" expressed by a sentence truly reflects a real phenomenon or event in the real world is considered in semantics to be a "sentence true or false" or "sentence truth value issue." Two important relationships between truth values ​​between sentence meanings are:

The meaning of context has three aspects. First, it refers to the physical context of the discourse, also called the "speech scene", which refers to the speaker/recipient of the discourse, the time and space at the time of speaking, and all existences in this time and space. Secondly, it also includes the discourse context, which refers to the preceding or following utterances in a coherent speech event. Finally, it also includes background knowledge of the speaker and the addressee.

"Topic" refers to the entity related to the semantic information in a sentence, and the other parts of the sentence that expand on the topic are "explanations". There are two types of syntactic expressions of the most common topics. One is marked by special function words, such as Japanese; the other is marked by specific positions in sentences, such as Chinese.

The new information that the speaker wants the addressee to pay special attention to, that is, the focus of the sentence, must be marked by some perceptible means.

The previous section included research on presuppositions in semantics. That is studied as the relationship between sentence meanings

Intralocutionary accidents in daily life

Linguistic accidents in literary works

What people say is not just an image of human experience (sentence meaning), nor is it just a specific speaker's specific knowledge of human experience. It is also a social behavior. Verbal communication behavior itself also constitutes a new human experience, and has a "behavior-effectiveness" relationship with other people, objects, phenomena, and events in the real world. These things mean language on another level.

Speech acts can be divided into three parts

Direct speech acts usually have behavioral functions with literal meanings, while indirect speech acts usually have behavioral functions with non-literal meanings. An important purpose of indirect speech acts is to comply with the politeness principle in conversation and make the speaker's tone more tactful, thereby maintaining normal interpersonal relationships between the listener and the speaker.

Grammar is the structure of words, the rules of change and the rules of using words and sentences. It is formed in the long-term development process of language. This kind of rules exists objectively in a language and all members who speak this language must abide by it.

Combination rules: rules for combining grammatical units one after another. This rule is realistic and exists in discourse. Although it is invisible and intangible, it exists objectively. People who speak this language must abide by it, otherwise it will Create wrong sentences and say words that no one can understand.

Aggregation rules: rules for the classification and change of grammatical units. Several grammatical units (mainly words) can be replaced with each other at the same position. After replacement, the structural type and function will not change. Such several grammatical units form an aggregation relationship.

The combination rules and aggregation rules of grammar constitute the grammatical rules of a language

Any fragment that can be replaced at a certain position in the combination is a grammatical unit. Morphemes, words, phrases and sentences are grammatical structural units at different structural levels. Pay special attention to several concepts involved in morphemes

Simple words and compound words

The criteria for classifying parts of speech are

The difference between root and stem

The difference between affixes and suffixes

According to the grammatical relationship between words, there are only five basic types of structures, namely subject-predicate structure, predicate-object structure, predicate-complement structure, partial structure, and union structure.

Free phrases are word combinations that are temporarily formed based on expression needs in strict accordance with syntactic-semantic rules. A fixed phrase is a special linguistic unit that is similar in form to a phrase but functionally similar to a word. The difference between the two is as follows

No matter how complex the structure of the sentences in the language is or how many words are used, their combination is regular and not chaotic. Words are used to form sentences, and there are no more than several structural types: subject-predicate, predicate-object, predicate-complement, partial positive, and combination. Simple sentences use one or two structural types; complex sentences use multiple structural types. Each level of a sentence is composed of two units of the next level. These two components that form a larger unit are called direct components.

The method of analyzing the structure level of phrases or sentences generally uses direct component analysis. This is a set of theories and methods for segmenting language units. It is segmented layer by layer according to the word order of language combinations, analyzes the internal levels of the language structure layer by layer, and separates the two direct components at each level. Some of the direct components of complex phrases have a relatively complex structure, and we need to continue to analyze until all the direct components are words.

If there is a modifier before the predicate verb and an object after it, such as the phrase "must learn English", how to divide the levels? Should it be classified as partial or predicate first? We advocate classifying it as positive first, and then classifying it as predicate. If there are multiple modifying components that are not parallel in nature, they should be classified at different levels.

If the phrase is an ambiguous phrase, the different meanings must be displayed through analysis. For example, "the dog that killed the hunter", a good prime minister who loves the people, the People's Liberation Army who loves the people, etc.

General understanding: The recursive nature of combinations, the basic structural types of grammar can be nested and expanded, that is, the structural rules are recursive. The recursive nature of grammatical structures allows us to apply limited rules to create many sentences with complex structures. For example, the sentence "I know everyone likes to watch the movies he makes" uses the subject four times at different levels. predicate structure

Parts of speech are categories divided according to the role that words play in the structure, that is, the syntactic function. Words with the same function in the language are gathered together, classified into one category, and given a name. The categories of words divided from a grammatical perspective are speech classes. For example, "book" can be used as an object and is a noun; "beat" can be used as a predicate and is a verb. The same parts of speech have similar grammatical functions and can be replaced without changing the structural characteristics of the language. Therefore, the part of speech is actually a relatively wide aggregation group, and words of the same part of speech have an aggregation relationship. For example, we call words that express the names of things concepts nouns. Nouns often serve as subjects and objects. This is true in Chinese and also in English.

Morphology refers to the changes in the form of words when words are combined, and is an important means of expressing grammatical meaning. In languages ​​with morphological changes, the morphological changes of words are required by the combinatorial structural relationship of words, and can express various grammatical meanings. For example, English nouns must indicate whether they are singular or plural in a specific sentence, otherwise it cannot Enter the combined structure. This puts forward requirements for word form changes, which must be changed. Inflection is a broad concept, which mainly includes additional endings, internal inflection, and different roots.

Grammatical categories are the classification of grammatical meanings, a summary of grammatical meaning categories, and an aggregation of grammatical meanings represented by the changing forms of words. For example, the grammatical meaning of the English adjective bad (bad) is the primary level, the grammatical meaning of worse is the comparative level, and the grammatical meaning of worst is the superlative level. The meanings of the three levels are summarized into one category, called "level". Level is a grammatical category, which is a general term for the grammatical meaning of several levels of adjectives. Therefore, grammatical categories and grammatical meanings have a synonymy relationship, and grammatical meanings belong to grammatical categories.

Every grammatical category has the following common characteristics: first, there is a common domain of meaning, such as singular and plural numbers; second, the meaning expressed by each item in the same grammatical category not only depends on itself, but also It also depends on the mutual constraints between it and other items

Common grammatical categories include gender, number, case, aspect, tense, state, person, grade, etc. Grammar category content requires mastering the basic concepts and basic categories included in each category, and being able to combine specific sentence analysis

Grammar rules are habits that everyone must follow when speaking, not prescribed by linguists. The combination rules and aggregation rules of grammar constitute the grammatical rules of a language.

transformations and sentence patterns

Transformation and syntactic synonyms

Transformation and syntactic ambiguity