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MindMap Gallery Metabolic integration and regulation mind map
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Metabolic integration and regulation mind map
This is a mind map about the integration and regulation of metabolism. Metabolism refers to all chemical changes in living cells in the body, and almost all of its reactions are enzymatic reactions.
Edited at 2023-11-06 21:44:06
- cáncer de pulmón
El cáncer de pulmón es un tumor maligno que se origina en la mucosa bronquial o las glándulas de los pulmones. Es uno de los tumores malignos con mayor morbilidad y mortalidad y mayor amenaza para la salud y la vida humana.
- diabetes
La diabetes es una enfermedad crónica con hiperglucemia como signo principal. Es causada principalmente por una disminución en la secreción de insulina causada por una disfunción de las células de los islotes pancreáticos, o porque el cuerpo es insensible a la acción de la insulina (es decir, resistencia a la insulina), o ambas cosas. la glucosa en la sangre es ineficaz para ser utilizada y almacenada.
- sistema digestivo
El sistema digestivo es uno de los nueve sistemas principales del cuerpo humano y es el principal responsable de la ingesta, digestión, absorción y excreción de los alimentos. Consta de dos partes principales: el tracto digestivo y las glándulas digestivas.
Metabolic integration and regulation mind map
- cáncer de pulmón
El cáncer de pulmón es un tumor maligno que se origina en la mucosa bronquial o las glándulas de los pulmones. Es uno de los tumores malignos con mayor morbilidad y mortalidad y mayor amenaza para la salud y la vida humana.
- diabetes
La diabetes es una enfermedad crónica con hiperglucemia como signo principal. Es causada principalmente por una disminución en la secreción de insulina causada por una disfunción de las células de los islotes pancreáticos, o porque el cuerpo es insensible a la acción de la insulina (es decir, resistencia a la insulina), o ambas cosas. la glucosa en la sangre es ineficaz para ser utilizada y almacenada.
- sistema digestivo
El sistema digestivo es uno de los nueve sistemas principales del cuerpo humano y es el principal responsable de la ingesta, digestión, absorción y excreción de los alimentos. Consta de dos partes principales: el tracto digestivo y las glándulas digestivas.
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- Outline
Chemistry-Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins_Amino acids Nucleotide metabolism and their connections
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The interconnection of sugar, lipid, and protein metabolism and the metabolic changes of the body in different states
Metabolic integration and regulation
Metabolism refers to all chemical changes in living cells of the body, and almost all of its reactions are enzymatic reactions.
Metabolism is the material basis of life activities
The basic characteristics of life activities: various substances in living organisms are continuously metabolized according to certain rules.
metabolic integrity
Metabolic processes in the body are interconnected to form a whole
metabolic integrity
The metabolism of substances is carried out at the same time, and they are interconnected and interdependent. The metabolism of various substances are interconnected and form a unified whole.
Various metabolites in the body have their own common metabolic pools
Both the endogenous nutrients synthesized by oneself and the exogenous nutrients taken in from food form a common metabolic pool.
Metabolism in the body is in dynamic balance
The metabolism of various nutrients in the body is always in a dynamic balance
What is born is transformed, and transformation is regenerated. Biochemistry means transformation and rebirth. The new must be aged, the old is eliminated, and the new and old are constantly metabolized.
NADPH produced by oxidative decomposition provides the reducing equivalents required for anabolism
Many biosynthetic reactions in the body are reductive synthesis and require reducing equivalents in order for these biosynthetic reactions to proceed smoothly
Material metabolism and energy metabolism are interrelated
The tricarboxylic acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation are common metabolic pathways for the final breakdown of sugar, fat, and protein. The energy released is composed of ATP.
Various life activities of the body, such as growth, development, reproduction, repair, movement, including the synthesis of various living substances, all require energy.
As an energy carrier that can be directly utilized by the body, ATP links the catabolism of energy-producing nutrients with the anabolism of energy-consuming substances, and links metabolism with other life activities.
From the perspective of energy supply, the three major nutrients can replace and complement each other, but they also restrict each other.
If lipolysis is enhanced, ATP production increases, and the ATP/ADP ratio increases, which can allosterically inhibit the activity of the key enzyme for sugar catabolism - phosphofructokinase-1, and slow down the catabolism of glucose.
If the oxidative decomposition of glucose is enhanced and ATP is increased, the activity of isocitrate dehydrogenase can be inhibited, leading to the accumulation of citric acid; the latter penetrates the mitochondria and activates acetyl-CoA enzyme to promote fatty acid synthesis and inhibit fatty acid decomposition.
Sugar, lipid and protein metabolism are interconnected through intermediary metabolites
The metabolism of sugar, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, etc. in the body is not isolated from each other. Rather, they are connected and transformed through common intermediate metabolites, tricarboxylic acid cycle and biological oxidation.
Glucose can be converted into fatty acids
glucose
Synthetic glycogen storage (liver, muscle)
Acetyl CoA
Synthetic fat (adipose tissue)
Excessive intake of fat-free high-sugar meals can also increase plasma triglycerides and lead to obesity.
Fat
glycerin
Glycerolkinase/liver, kidney, intestine
Phosphoric acid, glycerol
glucose
fatty acid
Acetyl COA
cannot be converted to glucose
Glucose and most amino acids can transform into each other
Among the 20 amino acids that make up human proteins, all of them, except ketogenic amino acids, can generate corresponding α-keto acids through deamination.
All 20 amino acids, except leucine and lysine, can be converted into sugar, while sugar metabolism intermediate metabolites can only be converted into 11 non-essential amino acids in the body.
Alanine
deamination
Pyruvate
gluconeogenesis
glucose
sugar
Pyruvate
Alanine
Oxaloacetate
aspartic acid, glutamic acid
Acetyl COA
citric acid
alpha-ketoglutarate
Amino acids can be converted into a variety of lipids, but lipids can hardly be converted into amino acids
amino acids
Acetyl COA
Fat
Serine
Phosphatidylserine
cholamine
cephalin
choline
Lecithin
Some amino acids, pentose phosphate are raw materials for the synthesis of nucleotides
De novo synthesis of purine bases requires glycine, aspartic acid, glutamine and one-carbon units as raw materials
The bedside synthesis of pyrimidine base requires aspartic acid, glutamine and one-carbon unit as raw materials
Main ways of metabolic regulation
Intracellular substance metabolism is mainly achieved through the regulation of joint enzyme activity
The complexity of color adjustment increases with the degree of water purification.
Metabolic regulation at the cellular level is the basis. Regulation of metabolism by hormones and nerves needs to be achieved through metabolic regulation at the cellular level.
Metabolic regulation at the cellular level is mainly regulation at the enzyme level
Isolated distribution of intracellular enzymes
The speed and direction of a metabolic pathway are determined by the activity of key enzymes in it
Metabolic regulation is mainly achieved through the regulation of key enzyme activities
The compartmental distribution of various metabolic enzymes in cells is the subcellular structural basis of material metabolism and its regulation.
This compartmentalized distribution of enzymes can avoid interference between different metabolic pathways, allowing a series of enzymatic reactions in the same metabolic pathway to proceed more smoothly and continuously, which not only increases the speed of metabolic pathways, but also facilitates regulation.
Key regulatory enzyme activities determine the speed and direction of entire metabolic pathways
Characteristics of key enzymes
1 Often catalyzes the first step reaction or the reaction at the branch point of a metabolic pathway, which is the slowest. Its activity can determine the overall speed of the entire metabolic pathway.
2 often catalyzes one-way reactions or non-equilibrium reactions, and its activity can determine the direction of the entire metabolic pathway.
3 In addition to being controlled by substrates, enzyme activity is also regulated by a variety of effectors.
Characteristics of reactions catalyzed by key enzymes
1 is the slowest
2. Catalytic one-way reaction, irreversible or unbalanced reaction
Metabolic regulation can be divided according to speed
Quick adjustment
By changing the molecular structure of the enzyme, the activity of the enzyme is changed, thereby changing the speed of the enzymatic reaction and exerting a regulatory effect within seconds or minutes.
slow adjustment
By changing the synthesis or degradation rate of enzyme protein molecules, the content of intracellular enzymes is changed, thereby changing the speed of enzymatic reactions. It usually takes hours or even days for the regulation to take effect.
Allosteric regulation changes key enzyme activities through allosteric effects
Allosteric regulation is a common metabolic regulation method in the biological world.
Some small molecule compounds can specifically bind to specific parts outside the active center of the enzyme protein molecule, changing the conformation of the enzyme protein molecule, thereby changing the enzyme activity.
Allosteric effectors change enzyme activity by changing the conformation of the enzyme molecule
mechanism
The regulatory subunit of the enzyme also has a "pseudo-substrate" sequence. When it binds to the active site of the catalytic subunit, it can prevent the binding of the substrate and inhibit the enzyme activity. When the effector molecule binds to the regulatory subunit, the "pseudo-substrate" sequence The conformational change of the "substance" sequence releases the catalytic subunit to perform catalytic action
The combination of allosteric effectors and regulatory subunits can cause the tertiary and quaternary structures of the enzyme molecule to change between the "T" conformation and the "R" conformation, thus affecting the enzyme activity.
Allosteric regulation coordinates the metabolism of a substance with corresponding metabolic needs and the metabolism of related substances
Allosteric effects may be enzyme substrates, end products of enzymatic reactions, or other small molecule metabolites
allosteric regulation
1. The key enzymes in its metabolic pathway are inhibited by other structures to avoid producing more products than needed.
2 Allosteric adjustment allows the body to produce energy according to demand and avoid waste caused by excessive production.
3 Some metabolic intermediates can allosterically regulate the key enzymes of multiple related metabolic pathways, so that these metabolic pathways can proceed in a coordinated manner.
Chemical modification modulation modulates enzyme activity through enzymatic covalent modification
Enzymatic covalent modifications come in many forms
Certain amino acid residue side chains on the enzyme protein peptide chain can be reversibly covalently modified under the catalysis of another enzyme, thereby changing the enzyme activity.
Phosphorylation and dephosphorylation, acetylation and deacetylation, methylation and demethylation, adenylation and deadenylation
Phosphorylation and dephosphorylation are the most common, and the reactions are irreversible and are catalyzed by protein kinases and phosphatases respectively.
Chemical modification of enzymes has a cascade amplification effect
Features
1 The vast majority of key substances regulated by chemical modifications have two forms: inactive (or low activity) and active (or high activity). They can be covalently modified and transformed into each other under two different chemical conditions. . Catalytic interconversion in vivo is controlled by upstream regulatory factors such as hormones
The chemical modification of 2-alcohol is another disease-catalyzed reaction. One molecule of catalytic enzyme can catalyze the covalent modification of multiple substrate enzyme molecules, with strong specificity and amplification effect.
Phosphorylation and dephosphorylation are the most common enzymatic chemical modification reactions. The phosphorylation of one molecule of subunit usually consumes one molecule of ATP, which is much less than that consumed by the synthetase protein. It acts quickly and has an amplification effect. It is an economical and effective way to regulate enzyme activity.
Catalytically covalently modified alcohols themselves are often subject to allosteric regulation and chemical modification, and are coupled to hormone regulation to form signaling molecules (hormones, etc.), signal transduction molecules and effector molecules (key enzymes regulated by chemical modifications) The cascade reaction composed of the enzyme makes the regulation of intracellular enzyme activity more precise and coordinated.
The same enzyme can be regulated by both allosteric regulation and chemical modification
Modulate enzyme activity by changing intracellular enzyme content
Changing enzyme content can also change enzyme activity, which is an important way to regulate metabolism.
Induces or represses enzyme protein-coding gene expression to regulate enzyme content
Factors: enzyme substrates, products, hormones and drugs
Change enzyme protein degradation rate to regulate enzyme content
Changing the degradation rate of enzyme protein molecules is an important way to regulate enzyme content
Two pathways for enzyme protein degradation
Lysosomal proteolytic enzymes can non-specifically degrade enzymatic proteins
Specific degradation of enzymatic proteins is accomplished through the ATP-dependent ubiquitin–proteasome pathway
Hormones regulate target cell metabolism through specific receptors
Internal and external environment changes
Related tissues of the body secrete hormones
Hormones bind to receptors on target cells
Target cells produce biological effects and adapt to changes in the internal and external environment
Membrane receptor hormones regulate metabolism through transmembrane signaling
Membrane receptors are transmembrane proteins found on the cell membrane
Intracellular receptor hormones change gene expression and regulate metabolism through hormone-intracellular receptor complexes
The hormone receptor complex formed after the intracellular receptors present in the cytoplasm combine with hormones enters the nucleus and also acts on the hormone response elements, exerting a metabolic regulatory effect by changing the expression of the corresponding genes.
The body coordinates overall metabolism through the nervous system and neuro-humoral pathways
Overall level regulation: Under the guidance of the nervous system, it regulates hormone release and integrates various metabolisms of different tissues and organs through hormones to achieve overall regulation to adapt to states such as satiety, fasting, hunger, overnutrition, stress, etc., and maintain overall metabolism. balance
The metabolism of the body's three major substances in the satiated state is related to dietary composition
After consuming a mixed meal
1. In a satiated state, the body mainly decomposes glucose.
2. Part of the undecomposed glucose is synthesized into liver glycogen in the liver and muscle glycogen in skeletal muscles under the action of insulin for storage; part is converted into pyruvate and acetyl-CoA in the liver to synthesize triglyceride in the form of VLDL Transported to tissues such as fat
3. Part of the absorbed triglyceride is converted into endogenous triglyceride by the liver, and most of it is transported to adipose tissue, skeletal muscle, etc. for conversion, storage or utilization.
After consuming a high-sugar meal
1 Part of the glucose absorbed in the small intestine is synthesized into muscle glycogen in skeletal muscles, liver glycogen and triglycerides in the liver, and the latter are transported to tissues such as fat for storage.
2. Most glucose is directly transported to adipose tissue, skeletal muscle, brain and other tissues and converted into non-sugar substances such as triglycerides for storage or utilization.
After consuming a high-protein meal
1. Liver glycogen decomposes to replenish blood sugar and supply brain tissue.
2 Amino acids are mainly generated into glucose in the liver through pyruvate, which supplies brain tissue and other extrahepatic tissues.
3 parts of amino acids are converted into acetyl coenzyme A to synthesize triglycerides
4 Some amino acids are also transported directly to skeletal muscles.
After consuming a high-fat meal
1. Liver glycogen decomposes to replenish blood sugar and supply brain tissue.
2. Muscle tissue amino acids are decomposed and converted into pyruvate, which is transported to the liver to be converted into glucose to supply blood sugar and extrahepatic tissues.
3. Triglycerides absorbed into the intestine are mainly transported to fat and muscle tissue.
4. While receiving the absorbed triglycerides, adipose tissue also partially decomposes fat into fatty acids and transports them to other tissues.
5. The liver oxidizes fatty acids to produce ketone bodies, which supply extrahepatic tissues such as the brain.
Fasting body metabolism is characterized by glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis and moderate fat mobilization.
Fasting usually refers to 12 hours after a meal, when insulin levels in the body decrease and glucagon increases.
When hungry, the body mainly oxidizes and decomposes fat for energy.
After short-term starvation, sugar oxidation energy supply is reduced and fat mobilization is enhanced.
Liver glycogen is basically depleted
blood sugar tends to lower
Increased amino acids, minimal insulin secretion, and increased glucagon secretion
Causes a series of metabolic changes
The body's main function changes from glucose oxidation to fat oxidation
Enhanced fat mobilization and increased hepatic ketone body production
Hepatic gluconeogenesis is significantly enhanced
Enhanced skeletal muscle protein breakdown
Long-term hunger can cause organ damage and even be life-threatening
Fat mobilization is further enhanced
reduced protein breakdown
Gluconeogenesis is significantly reduced
Stress increases body catabolism
Stress is a series of non-specific responses that the body or cells make in response to internal and external environmental stimuli.
Stimuli include poisoning, infection, fever, trauma, pain, large doses of exercise, or fear, etc.
Under stress, sympathetic nerves are excited, the adrenal medulla and corticosteroids secrete more, plasma glucagon and growth hormone levels increase, and insulin secretion decreases, causing a series of metabolic changes.
Stress increases blood sugar
It is important to ensure the energy supply of the brain and red blood cells
Stress enhances fat mobilization
Stress increases protein breakdown
Obesity is the result of metabolic imbalance caused by multiple factors
Obesity is a risk factor for many major chronic diseases
Obesity, atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease, stroke, diabetes. The risk of diseases such as hypertension is significantly higher than that of the normal population and is one of the main risk factors for these diseases
Metabolic syndrome refers to a group of clinical syndromes characterized by obesity, hyperglycemia, hypertension, and dyslipidemia. It is characterized by the combination of metabolically related risk factors in the same individual, manifesting as excess body fat, hypertension, Insulin resistance, elevated plasma cholesterol levels, and abnormal plasma lipoproteins
Energy intake exceeding expenditure for a longer period of time leads to obesity
Dysfunction of appetite-suppressing hormone causes obesity
Abnormal enhancement of hormone function that stimulates appetite causes obesity
Insulin resistance leads to obesity
Obesity is caused by metabolic imbalance. Once it is formed, it will in turn aggravate metabolic disorders.
During the obesity development stage, target cells are sensitive to insulin, blood sugar is reduced, and glucose tolerance is normal.
In the stable phase of obesity, hyperinsulinemia is manifested, tissue resistance to insulin, reduced glucose tolerance, and normal or elevated blood sugar.
The more obese or insulin resistant the person, the higher the blood glucose concentration and the more severe the disorder of glucose metabolism.
Metabolic characteristics of important tissues and organs in the body
The liver is the central organ of human metabolism and plays an important and special role in the metabolism of sugar, lipids, and proteins.
The role of liver in glucose metabolism
1Synthesize and store glycogen
2 Break down glycogen to produce glucose and release it into the blood
3 is the main organ of gluconeogenesis
The important function of adipose tissue is to store energy in the form of fat, so adipose tissue contains lipoproteins, lipase and unique hormone-sensitive triglyceride lipase
It can hydrolyze fat in blood circulation and use it to synthesize fat in fat cells and store it
It can also mobilize fat when the body needs it, releasing fatty acids for use by other tissues.
The liver is the material metabolism center and metabolic hub of the human body
The liver has a special tissue structure and histochemical composition. It is the hub of material metabolism and the central biochemical factory of the human body.
Although the liver can synthesize fat in large amounts, it cannot store fat. The fat synthesized by liver cells is then synthesized into VLDL and released into the blood.
The brain mainly uses glucose for energy and consumes large amounts of oxygen.
Glucose and ketone bodies are the main energy substances of the brain
The brain has no glycogen, and no fat and protein stored as energy for catabolism. Glucose is the main energy supply substance of the brain.
Brain oxygen consumption is as high as 1/4 of total body oxygen consumption
The brain has complex functions, frequent activities, and high and continuous energy consumption. It is an organ that consumes a lot of oxygen in the resting state of the human body.
The brain has specific amino acids and its metabolic regulation mechanism
Myocardium can utilize a variety of energy substances
Myocardium can use a variety of nutrients and their metabolic intermediates as energy
Cardiomyocytes contain a variety of thiokinases, which can catalyze the conversion of fatty acids with different lengths of carbon chains into fatty acyl-CoA, so the myocardium preferentially uses the oxidation and decomposition of fatty acids for energy.
Myocardial cells are rich in ketone body utilization enzymes and can also completely oxidize ketone bodies, the intermediate product of fatty acid decomposition, for energy supply.
The way cardiomyocytes decompose nutrients to supply energy is mainly aerobic oxidation.
Cardiomyocytes are rich in myoglobin, cytochromes and mitochondria
Myocardium is rich in lactate dehydrogenase, mainly LDH1, which has strong affinity with lactic acid and can catalyze the oxidation of lactic acid into pyruvate, which can then be carboxylated into oxaloacetate, which is conducive to aerobic oxidation.
Skeletal muscle uses muscle glycogen and fatty acids as its main energy sources
Different types of skeletal muscle produce energy in different ways
Different types of skeletal muscle have different glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation capabilities
Skeletal muscles adapt to different energy consumption states and select different energy sources
The direct source of energy required for skeletal muscle contraction is ATP
Muscle glycogenolysis cannot directly replenish blood sugar, and lactate cycle is an important mechanism integrating gluconeogenesis and low glycolysis pathways.
Skeletal muscles have a certain amount of glycogen reserves. Under resting conditions, tissue obtains energy, usually through aerobic oxidation of muscle glycogen, fatty acids, and ketone bodies. During strenuous exercise, the anaerobic oxidation function of sugar is greatly increased.
Adipose tissue is an important tissue for storing and mobilizing triglycerides
The body stores energy absorbed from meals mainly in adipose tissue
The energy substances that the body absorbs from meals are mainly fat and sugar.
When hungry, it mainly relies on the decomposition and storage of fat in adipose tissue for energy.
Kidneys perform gluconeogenesis and ketone body production