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Chapter 23 Basic theories of psychological development Biological basis of psychological development and fetal development
This is a mind map about Chapter 23: Basic theories of psychological development, biological basis of psychological development and fetal development. The main contents include: fetal development and innate qualities※, biological basis of psychological development, psychological development Basic questions (50), main theories of psychological development※※.
Edited at 2024-10-16 11:07:59- Rumi 10 despertares espirituais de alta dimensão
Rumi: 10 dimensões do despertar espiritual. Quando você para de se procurar, encontrará o universo inteiro porque o que está procurando também está procurando por você. Qualquer coisa que você persevera todos os dias pode abrir uma porta para as profundezas do seu espírito. Em silêncio, deslizei para o reino secreto e gostei de tudo para observar a magia ao meu redor e não fiz barulho. Por que você gosta de rastejar quando nasce com asas? A alma tem seus próprios ouvidos e pode ouvir coisas que a mente não pode entender. Procure para dentro para a resposta a tudo, tudo no universo está em você. Os amantes não acabam se encontrando em algum lugar, e não há despedida neste mundo. Uma ferida é onde a luz entra em seu coração.
- Fisiopatologia - insuficiência cardíaca
A insuficiência cardíaca crônica não é apenas um problema da velocidade da freqüência cardíaca! É causada pela diminuição da contração miocárdica e da função diastólica, o que leva a um débito cardíaco insuficiente, o que, por sua vez, causa congestão na circulação e congestão pulmonar na circulação sistêmica. Das causas, o indução aos mecanismos de compensação, os processos fisiopatológicos de insuficiência cardíaca são complexos e diversos. Ao controlar o edema, reduzir a frente e pós -carga do coração, melhorando a função de conforto cardíaco e prevenindo e tratando as causas básicas, podemos efetivamente responder a esse desafio. Somente entendendo os mecanismos e as manifestações clínicas da insuficiência cardíaca e as estratégias de prevenção e tratamento, podemos proteger melhor a saúde do coração.
- Fisiopatologia - Isquemia - Lesão de Reperfusão
A lesão de isquemia-reperfusão é um fenômeno que a função celular e os distúrbios metabólicos e os danos estruturais piorarão depois que órgãos ou tecidos restauram o suprimento sanguíneo. Seus principais mecanismos incluem aumento da geração de radicais livres, sobrecarga de cálcio e o papel dos microvasculares e leucócitos. O coração e o cérebro são órgãos danificados comuns, manifestados como mudanças no metabolismo do miocárdio e mudanças ultraestruturais, diminuição da função cardíaca etc. As medidas de prevenção e controle incluem remover os radicais livres, reduzir a sobrecarga de cálcio, melhorar o metabolismo e controlar as condições de reperfusão, como baixo sódio, baixa temperatura, baixa pressão, etc. A compreensão desses mecanismos pode ajudar a desenvolver opções eficazes de tratamento e aliviar lesões isquêmicas.
Chapter 23 Basic theories of psychological development Biological basis of psychological development and fetal development
- Rumi 10 despertares espirituais de alta dimensão
Rumi: 10 dimensões do despertar espiritual. Quando você para de se procurar, encontrará o universo inteiro porque o que está procurando também está procurando por você. Qualquer coisa que você persevera todos os dias pode abrir uma porta para as profundezas do seu espírito. Em silêncio, deslizei para o reino secreto e gostei de tudo para observar a magia ao meu redor e não fiz barulho. Por que você gosta de rastejar quando nasce com asas? A alma tem seus próprios ouvidos e pode ouvir coisas que a mente não pode entender. Procure para dentro para a resposta a tudo, tudo no universo está em você. Os amantes não acabam se encontrando em algum lugar, e não há despedida neste mundo. Uma ferida é onde a luz entra em seu coração.
- Fisiopatologia - insuficiência cardíaca
A insuficiência cardíaca crônica não é apenas um problema da velocidade da freqüência cardíaca! É causada pela diminuição da contração miocárdica e da função diastólica, o que leva a um débito cardíaco insuficiente, o que, por sua vez, causa congestão na circulação e congestão pulmonar na circulação sistêmica. Das causas, o indução aos mecanismos de compensação, os processos fisiopatológicos de insuficiência cardíaca são complexos e diversos. Ao controlar o edema, reduzir a frente e pós -carga do coração, melhorando a função de conforto cardíaco e prevenindo e tratando as causas básicas, podemos efetivamente responder a esse desafio. Somente entendendo os mecanismos e as manifestações clínicas da insuficiência cardíaca e as estratégias de prevenção e tratamento, podemos proteger melhor a saúde do coração.
- Fisiopatologia - Isquemia - Lesão de Reperfusão
A lesão de isquemia-reperfusão é um fenômeno que a função celular e os distúrbios metabólicos e os danos estruturais piorarão depois que órgãos ou tecidos restauram o suprimento sanguíneo. Seus principais mecanismos incluem aumento da geração de radicais livres, sobrecarga de cálcio e o papel dos microvasculares e leucócitos. O coração e o cérebro são órgãos danificados comuns, manifestados como mudanças no metabolismo do miocárdio e mudanças ultraestruturais, diminuição da função cardíaca etc. As medidas de prevenção e controle incluem remover os radicais livres, reduzir a sobrecarga de cálcio, melhorar o metabolismo e controlar as condições de reperfusão, como baixo sódio, baixa temperatura, baixa pressão, etc. A compreensão desses mecanismos pode ajudar a desenvolver opções eficazes de tratamento e aliviar lesões isquêmicas.
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- Outline
Chapter 23: Basic theories of psychological development Biological basis of psychological development and fetal development
Main theories of psychological development※※
Psychoanalytic view of psychological development
Freud 7
1. a driving force
libido
The core of the theory is that the innate sexual instinct carries a certain amount of psychological energy "libido" and is the fundamental driving force for all behaviors, driving individuals to act to obtain satisfaction and pleasure.
2. Two instincts
①Innate instinct
Ensure human survival (breathing, eating, drinking, sex and other collective needs)
②Death instinct
Various destructive powers that people may display
3.Personality structure theory
①Self
At the deepest level of personality, the basic function is to provide energy or motivation for objects that seek to satisfy the body's instincts. The younger you are, the greater the role of instinct. The pleasure principle
primary thought process
In the process of the baby waiting for the physiological needs to be satisfied, the goal of the id's fantasy hope appears and is satisfied.
②Self
The middle layer, developed from the id, regulates the contradiction between the id and the superego and finds realistic ways to satisfy instinctive needs; the reality principle
secondary thought process
Control actions, think about past experiences, and plan for the future
③Superego
The highest level, the moral standards internalized in the personality (conscience: negative critical part/self-ideal: positive ambitious ideal), suppressing the ego, supervising the self; moral principles
The three levels are intertwined to form an organic whole, each performing its own responsibilities. The three coordinate the personality to express health status, and the inability to resolve conflicts can lead to mental illness.
4. Four research methods
①Clinical observation method ②Hypnotic dream interpretation method ③Free association method ④Life history method
5. Personality development is the development of libido (psychological sexual desire). The main focus of release is divided into five stages. The theory of psychological development stages
①Oral stage (0-1 years old)
① Libido starts from the mouth, and sucking milk brings the greatest pleasure to children ②Smoking and drinking in adults are the development of oral pleasure
②Anal stage (1-3 years old)
① Libido is transferred to the anus, and excretion brings maximum happiness to children
② The critical period for children to learn how to get love, praise and appreciation. If parents do not treat them appropriately, traces of fear/guilt/contempt remain in the child's personality.
③Genital stage (pre-reproductive period 3-6 years old)
① During the excitement and restlessness period, the genitals are the main source of happiness and satisfaction for children.
②Children experience ambivalent emotions and seek parents of the opposite sex as lovers but at the same time fear/love parents of the same sex
Heterosexual parent-child attachment can be divided into two types: Electra/Oedipus complex (Electra/Oedipus Complex)
③If the problem is not fully resolved, residual conflicts will remain in the subconscious and distort the adolescent/adult personality.
④Incubation period (6-11/13 years old)
① The calm period mainly satisfies the genital area, and sexual development stagnates and degenerates because it suppresses sexual expression in order to resolve the Electra/Oedipus complex conflict. ②Children invest their libido in learning, sports, games, and interactions
⑤Reproductive period/puberty (after 11/13 years old)
① Secondary sexual characteristics appear, sexual impulses are awakened during puberty, and students learn to express impulses in socially acceptable ways ②The most important task for an individual is to get rid of parental control, prone to impulsiveness and resistance to adults ③If children can satisfy this instinct, they will be less self-centered and look at the world more objectively.
6.Evaluation
advantage
①High originality and great influence ②Suggestion to have a significant impact on the practice of parents/other caregivers ③Major contribution to society and science
shortcoming
① Insufficient scientific basis, without direct observation of children, indirect and sometimes one-sided distortion ② Case study results lack representativeness
Erikson 6
Emphasizing the integrated and leading role of the self in interaction, personality is a system of three factors: biology, psychology and society.
There are eight stages of psychological development, each stage has corresponding development tasks and personality qualities, also known as "Development Crisis Theory"
①Infancy (0-2 years old)
Develop trust, overcome distrust, and experience the realization of hope
②Early childhood (2-4 years old)
Gain autonomy, overcome shame, and experience will fulfillment
③Preschool period (4-7 years old)
Take the initiative to overcome guilt and experience the realization of your goals
Also known as the game period, Erikson believes that games perform self-functions and reflect self-healing/self-education in resolving conflicts.
④School age (7-12 years old)
Obtain hard work to overcome inferiority complex and experience the realization of abilities
⑤Youth (12-18 years old)
Establish unity to avoid confusion and experience the realization of loyalty
legal probation
⑥Early adulthood (18-25 years old)
Gain intimacy, avoid loneliness, and experience the realization of love
⑦Middle adulthood (25-50 years old)
Gain reproduction, avoid stagnation, and experience the realization of care
⑧Late adulthood (after 50 years old)
Achieve perfection and avoid disappointment, experience the realization of wisdom
evaluate
excellent
①Children are active explorers ②Adapting to social development and not paying attention to sexual impulses, emphasizing cultural influence
lack
① Christian cultural background ② With autonomy (fantasy)
Compare 1
the difference
① Freud emphasized the role of instinct and early experience, limiting human development to the narrow triangular relationship of "mother-child-father"; while Erikson emphasized the role of the self and placed individual development in a broader social context. on, attaching importance to the impact of social culture on human development ② Freud’s psychological development stages are divided into adolescence, while Erikson’s extends to a person’s life.
connect
Erikson is the inheritance, expansion and modification of Freud and has its own characteristics: the development process is not one-dimensional and vertical but multi-dimensional. At each stage, there is no question of whether to develop but the direction of development.
behaviorism
Watson
The essence of psychology is behavior. Each psychological phenomenon is only a component of behavior and can be demonstrated by the objective stimulus (S)-response (R) formula, including advanced psychological activities-thinking.
① Deny the role of genetics
a. Behavioral responses are caused by stimuli. Stimuli come from objective sources rather than genetics. Behavior does not depend on genetics. b. Acknowledge that structural differences in the body come from inheritance, but structural inheritance does not prove functional inheritance. c. Psychology should aim at controlling behavior, but genetics cannot control it.
② Environmental determinism: exaggerating the role of environment and education
a. The basis of learning is conditioned reflex, and the determining conditions are external stimuli. b. Differences in structure between individuals and differences in training in early childhood are sufficient to explain individual behavioral differences. c. Put forward the theory of omnipotence of education, and healthy babies can be trained to become adults in any profession.
③Research on emotional development
Little Albert experiment, three types of unlearned traits in children, jealousy and shame, etc.
evaluate
①Biological tendencies ②Can only explain some lower-level psychological processes ③Excluding advanced psychological functions narrows the scope of psychological research ④ Strict scientific orientation improves the objectivity of psychological research to a certain extent
Skinner: Operant Conditioning (see Teaching Mind), Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory 2 (See Teaching Mind)
Piaget's theory of cognitive development ※※※8(50)
The core of the theory is the theory of epistemogenesis, and the theoretical basis comes from biology, logic, and psychology.
1. Development essence and reasons
①Cognitive development is a construction process, realized in the continuous interaction between the individual and the environment
②Psychology originates from the action of the subject towards the object. The real cause/essence of psychological development is the adaptation of the subject to the object.
The essence of adaptation lies in the balance between the body and the environment, and adaptation is completed through the two forms of assimilation/adaptation
2. Development factors and structure
factor
①Mature
The growth of the body, especially the maturation of the brain and nervous system, the possibility of development
②Natural experience (physical factors)
Physical experience and mathematical logic experience
③Social experience (social environment)
Social interaction and social transmission (linguistic/educational/interpersonal)
④Balance
Self-regulation in the balance between body and environment
structure
① Schema
The structure or organization of movements first comes from inheritance, and then is continuously assimilated, adapted, and balanced into new patterns in the process of adapting to the environment. Piaget did not explain that patterns are reversible.
②Assimilation
Incorporate new experiences into the body's existing schemas to strengthen and enrich the original schemas, only quantitative change without schema change/innovation (quantitative change)
③Accommodate
Change existing schemas to incorporate/adapt new experiences, qualitative change, create new schemas/adjust original schemas (qualitative change)
④Balance
Assimilation and accommodation lead to adaptation, and the body temporarily reaches equilibrium, but only the next higher level of equilibrium movement begins.
It is both a factor of psychological development and a structure of psychological development.
Basic characteristics of thinking structure
①Integrity: internal coherence and internal laws ② Conversion: regular control of movement development ③Auto-tuning: the role of balance
3. Understanding the stages of development
①Perceptual motor stage (0-2 years old)
Can only coordinate sensory perception/motor activities to form some low-level action schemas
Features
Forming object permanence/initial understanding of the concept of self and others (A not B error)
a. Object permanence
1 year old, when the object disappears from the field of vision, it still believes that the object exists objectively
②Pre-operation stage (2-7 years old)
Perceptions/actions are internalized into representations, and symbols can be used to describe the outside world using representations/language.
Features
Egocentric/rigid/centralized (perceptual sensibility)/non-conservation/collective monologue/animism/irreversible thinking of concrete images/symbolization of action schemas, mostly symbolic games/rapid development of language
a.Concrete image thinking
Thinking with concrete images/representations of real things
b. Self-centered
Only pay attention to subjective views, cannot accept other people's views, and cannot coordinate the two.
③Concrete operation stage (7-12 years old)
Thinking activities can obey logical rules, but cognitive activities are still relatively concrete and cannot perform abstract operations.
Features
Decentralization/decentralization (the biggest characteristic of children’s mature thinking)/reversible thinking/8-year-old conservation concept
a. Reversible
The conservation acquisition sign is also a sign of the specific operation stage.
④Formal operation stage (after 12 years old)
Form abstract logical thinking, and develop the ability to reason about propositions (pendulum experiment) based on hypotheses, and the thinking level begins to approach that of adults.
Main points
① The psychological development process is continuous but has stages. The stages can be postponed but the order remains unchanged. ② Each stage appears in a high and low order. The structure of the previous stage is the basis of the structure of the later stage. There is no absolute overlap between the two stages. ③There are essential differences between the two stages. The new level is a new integration/new structure of many factors. The level of each cognitive ability in the same stage is equivalent.
Enlightenment
The theoretical basis of activity teaching method and cognitive conflict method enlightens us that teaching should adapt to students’ cognitive structure
4. Neo-Piagetianism
The neo-Piagetian model accepts the impact of neurological factors, information processing factors, and specific task factors on cognition
VygotskyVygotsky ※※※5(13)
1. “Culture-Historical” Development Theory
① The use of tools leads to a new way of adaptation in humans - the indirect way of material production. Human beings are different from animals in adapting to nature in this way. ② Tool production condenses human indirect experience (social and cultural knowledge and experience), so that the laws of human psychological development are restricted by the laws of social and historical development. ③These conditions lead to the emergence of spiritual production tools - unique words and symbols of human society, which promote the development of psychological activities.
2. Internal chemistry theory
①The basis is tool theory: tools are divided into two categories, material tools (appliances/machines) and psychological tools (symbols/marks/language, etc.) ② Internalization: People’s mastery of tools transforms culture, the product of human social development, into internal psychological structures ③Psychological activities are direct/involuntary/low-level/natural, mastering language to indirect/casual/advanced/social history
3. Development essence/symbol/reason
substance
The process of development of psychological functions from lower to higher levels
logo
①Psychological activities and voluntary functions
②Abstract summary function of psychological activities
③Form an indirect, symbolically mediated psychological structure
④Personalization of psychological activities
reason
① Development originates from social and cultural-historical development and is restricted by social laws ② By mastering language and symbols, various new psychological functions can be formed based on low-level psychological functions. ③Advanced psychological functions are the result of continuous internalization
4. The relationship between teaching and development
①Zone of proximal development
The difference between the current development level and the potential development level. The latter refers to the level that can be achieved under guidance, which better reflects individual differences in psychological development; teaching creates the zone of proximal development, which determines the motivation between the first and second development levels. state
②Teaching should be in front of development
Teaching can be defined as human development, which determines intellectual development and is reflected in the speed/content/level/activity characteristics of intellectual development.
③The best period to study
The best age to learn a certain skill (critical period), teaching must be based on maturity and development
5. Inspiration from teaching work
① Carry out scaffolding teaching
②Teachers should constantly obtain feedback on students’ development and provide them with learning materials that are within their zone of proximal development and of appropriate difficulty.
③Guide cooperative learning
④ Pay attention to the influence of social culture on children
⑤Apply situational cognition theory and its teaching model
A comparison of Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s views on development
①The relationship between education and development: obedience versus guidance ②The production of speech: products of cognitive structure versus products of communication ③The relationship between speech and thinking: immature characteristics on functional motivation
ecological systems theory, Bronfenbrenner 2(13)
Emphasizes that individual development is nested in a series of environmental systems that interact with each other. The system interacts with the individual and affects individual development.
①Microsystem
The immediate environment of individual activities/interactions, constantly changing and developing, the innermost layer of the environmental system
HomeParents/School/Peers
②Intermediary system
The connection or interrelationship between various micro-systems is better if it is positive and stronger.
The degree of consistency between family and school education for children
③Outer system
Systems in which children do not directly participate but which influence their development
Parents’ occupational conditions, community conditions, relatives
④Macroscopic system
The outermost layer of the environment does not directly meet the needs of children, but provides support to the inner environments.
Culture/values/customs/laws and other cultural resources
⑤Time system diachronic system
In the time dimension, any change in the ecological environment affects the direction of individual development.
Family composition/place of residence, parents’ career changes/major events, etc.
Basic Issues in Psychological Development(50)
1. The debate between heredity and environment
Innate inheritance (internal genetic structure) VS acquired environment (family, school, society)
faction
①Genetic determinism
Emphasize the role of genetics in determining psychological development
Kurain's selective breeding experiment/Galton's celebrity genealogy/twin study/Hall/James, etc.
②Environmental determinism
Emphasis on environment (intrauterine environment, early experience)
Locke/Watson/Raisinian animal early experience deprivation experiment/rhesus monkey/Rosenzweig mouse
③Two factors theory
Genetics and environment are indispensable
De Xin Shi Tai Lun
④Interaction theory
Behavior occurs through the interaction between genetics and environment
Ruixin Piaget
consensus
interaction view
①Psychology is the product of the interaction between genetics/environmental factors, which in turn affects the interaction process between genetics/environment ②In different aspects/periods of psychological development, the relationship between genetic/environmental factors is different, and the individual plays an active regulatory role.
2. Continuity and stages of development
① Gradualism
Psychological development is a process of accumulation of quantity, a process of gradual and continuous change
Behaviorism/Social Learning Theory (Bandura)/Information Processing Theory (Cognitive Psychology)
②Stage theory
Psychological development is a discontinuous process. Sometimes the development is stable, and sometimes there is a qualitative change. The two stages before and after show completely different psychological characteristics.
Piaget's epistemology/Freud/Ericksonian psychoanalytic theory
consensus
Psychological development is a continuity/stage unity
3. Children’s initiative and passivity
Functional theory, Piaget
Human behavior is endogenous and self-generated. The driving force for development comes from within the body and is the result of individuals actively exploring the surrounding environment and world and actively interacting with others.
Mechanism, Watson
Development is mechanically passive and completely controlled by the environment, and development results are directly predicted by external environmental stimuli.
consensus
Environment and education do not mechanically determine psychological development, but work through contradictions within psychological development.
4. Issues about the “critical period” of children’s psychological development
critical period
At a certain period, there is a certain psychological tendency that makes children active/interested in specific things/activities and able to effectively understand/master them. After this period, the above situation will disappear and no longer appear.
It is better to use sensitive period instead of critical period
During this period, individuals are more receptive to certain stimulus influences/forms of learning. After this period, the possibility of the emergence/development of this psychological function is still but less likely.
evidence
① Imprinting in birds ② Dual vision in mammals ③ Social development of rhesus monkeys ④ Human language acquisition
Fetal development and innate qualities※
Sternberg, according to fetal development characteristics, there are three stages of prenatal development
①Embryonic stage (0–3 weeks)
Organization and early stages of organizational differentiation
It takes about two weeks from the formation of a fertilized egg to the implantation of embryonic tissue.
②Embryonic period (3-8 weeks)
tissue differentiation stage
Cells develop extremely rapidly, and the embryo differentiates into three cell layers
a. Ectoderm (base of skin, central/peripheral nervous system) b. Mesoderm (muscle/skeletal/connective/circulatory/urinary/reproductive system) c. Endoderm (digestive system/other internal organs/glands)
Features
①Critical period for organ differentiation and formation, the period when the embryo is most sensitive to environmental risk factors ② Development follows the development principle from head to toe, from inside to outside ③At the end of 4 weeks, the heart begins to pump blood and the heartbeat begins; at the end of 8 weeks, the embryo begins to look a little human.
③Fetal period (8-40 weeks)
Organ and functional differentiation stage
a. Bone cells begin to develop (marking the arrival of a new period) b. The important developmental characteristic is fetal movement (fetal movement/reflex activity) c. The existing organ structure has further developed, and the proportions of the trunk and the functions of each part have become increasingly mature. d. In the 32nd week, the brain is like a newborn, and consciousness is in its infancy.
Factors affecting fetal development
①Maternal factors
Nutrition for pregnant women Pregnant women’s emotions: Mother’s emotions affect hormone secretion Stress in pregnant women: restlessness and mental stimulation during pregnancy Pregnant women's diseases: first trimester of pregnancy, such as rubella infection
②Paternal factors
Age, diseases and drugs, obesity, lifestyle, environmental exposure factors, etc.
③Genetic factors
chromosome gene (DNA)
Down syndrome (trisomy 21, maternal age-related disease), thyroid, genetic diseases, inborn errors of metabolism
④Epigenetic inheritance
Heritable changes in gene expression levels caused by non-DNA sequence changes
DNA methylation/RNA interference/histone modification/chromatin remodeling
⑤Environmental factors
Physical factors: ionizing radiation, noise, ultrasonic waves, high temperature, electromagnetic fields, etc. Chemical factors: lead, mercury, smoking, alcoholism, coffee, drug abuse, drugs, etc. Geographic factors: Pregnant women in high-altitude areas have slow arterial and uterine blood flow and placental hypoxia. Biological factors: air, water, soil pollution, etc.
neonatal reflex
The first type of unconditioned reflex
An unconditioned reflex with obvious adaptive value for newborns, helping them obtain food, excrete harmful substances, and pay attention to important stimuli in the environment.
survival reflex
①Unconditioned food reflex
Including feeding reflex, sucking reflex and swallowing reflex
②Unconditional defensive reflex
Including vomiting, sneezing, blink reflex, etc.
③Unconditional directional reflection
Newborns will turn their eyes toward the light source after birth; under the influence of loud noises or other stimuli, newborns will turn their heads toward the source of stimulation and inhibit the sucking action due to directional reflexes
Type II unconditioned reflex
Has no obvious adaptive value for newborns
a. Remaining in the process of evolution, it may have helped the body adapt to the outer environment during human evolution, but now it has lost its meaning and will soon disappear. b. If the conditioned reflex is weak/absent, it may indicate a developmental disorder of the spinal cord.
primitive reflection
①Tonic neck reflex disappears in about 3 months
Fencing reflex, turning his head to one side when lying on his back, keeping his chin over his shoulders
②The walking reflex disappears in about 8 weeks
Hold the newborn's armpits so that its bare feet touch the surface, and the baby will step like a coordinated walk.
③Swimming reflex disappears after 4-6 months
When a newborn is placed prone in the water, it will use its limbs to make well-coordinated, swimming-like movements.
④Darwinian reflex disappears after 4 months
grasp reflex
⑤ Moro reflex disappears around April
Startle reflex, sudden loud noise/head dropped, arms stretched out and back arched, then arms drawn inward and closed
⑥Babinski reflex disappears between August and December
When you use the blunt end of a matchstick or pin to lightly scratch the outer edge of the sole of the newborn's foot from the heel forward, the big toe will slowly rise up, and the other toes will open in a fan shape, and then curl up.
Biological basis of psychological development
Heredity and genes
①Cell
smallest structural unit of the body
②Chromosome
Carrier of genetic material, stores and transmits genetic information, composed of DNA and protein
③DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid, the main chemical component of chromosomes, double helix structure, and the sequence of base pairs determines genetic information
④Gene
A segment of DNA, the smallest unit of a specific genetic function, the basic unit of genetic information
life begins
Meiosis and fertilization
① During the maturation process of germ cells, the chromosomes replicate once and the cells divide twice. ②Sperm and egg combine to form a fertilized egg (zygote)
Mitosis and cell proliferation
24-36 hours after fertilization, the fertilized egg begins to undergo mitosis (chromosome division). Cells proliferate by division, which is the basis of growth/development/reproduction/genetics and important basic characteristics of life.