Clifford Geertz (1926-2006): He is the most important representative of interpretive anthropology. Geertz's main point is to view culture as a system of meaning, and the job of anthropologists is to explain and understand culture in depth. His representative work is "The Interpretation of Culture". In this book, he proposed the concept of "thick description," which is to describe cultural behaviors in detail to reveal the meaning behind them. For example, his research on Bali cockfighting, through meticulously describing the cockfighting process, the behaviors and expressions of the participants, and many other details, revealed how the Balinese people's social status, dignity and other concepts are reflected through cockfighting activities. There is also "Local Knowledge", which emphasizes the cultural relativity of knowledge. The generation of any knowledge is closely related to the cultural background in which it is located.

David Schneider: He emphasizes the systemic nature of culture and the correlation between cultural phenomena. His research focuses on kinship relationships and cultural cognition. His representative work "American Kinship: A Cultural Description", through the study of American kinship concepts and behaviors, shows how cultural concepts are reflected in kinship titles, interactive behaviors, etc., and reveals the reasons behind American kinship. cultural logic.

Victor Turner: British anthropologist whose research focused on ritual processes and the role of symbols in society. In his masterpiece "The Ritual Process: Structure and Anti-Structure", Turner proposed the concepts of "liminality" and "communitas" through the study of the rituals of the Ndembu people in Africa. "Liminality" refers to the intermediate stage during the ritual process when participants transition from a daily state to a special state. At this stage, the old social structure and identity are temporarily broken; "fusion" refers to the "liminal" stage. Equality and non-hierarchical social relations formed in the society. He believes that the symbols in rituals help build and strengthen the social structure and values ​​of the group. In addition, "Forest of Symbols" also demonstrates his in-depth thinking on the role of symbols in culture.

Mary Douglas (1921-2007): British anthropologist who made great contributions to the field of symbolic anthropology. She explored how symbols affect social order from a cognitive perspective. His representative work: "Clean and Dangerous". The book puts forward the theory of classification, which believes that people establish order by classifying things, and dirt is those things that do not conform to the classification system. For example, in different cultures, the division of clean and unclean food actually reflects the order and concepts within the culture. Through the analysis of many cases such as dietary taboos in the Old Testament, she reveals how symbolic systems maintain social boundaries and order.

Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908-2009) • Viewpoint: Introducing Saussure's theory of language structure into anthropology, it is believed that human behavior is governed by the deep unconscious structure behind social and cultural phenomena. It advocates the use of synchronic research methods to understand social structure by establishing models, and find out the relationships and connections between its internal elements from perceptible social and cultural phenomena, that is, the unconscious structure of society, such as binary oppositions that are human beings Fundamental ways of understanding and organizing the world. • Representative works: "Structural Anthropology" (1958, 1973), "Wild Mind", "Mythology", "The Way of Masks", etc.

Edmund Leach (1910-1989) • Viewpoint: Emphasis on the importance of structuralist methods in anthropological research, believing that culture is a system composed of various symbols. The relationship between these symbols constitutes the structure of culture. The analysis of these structures can reveal culture. meaning and function. • Representative works: "Political System in the Highlands of Myanmar", "Culture and Exchange", etc.

Leslie Alvin White: • Viewpoint: Proposes the "universal theory of evolution", which believes that the development of culture is related to the total energy consumed by the culture, and cultural stages can be divided according to the total energy produced by the culture. • Representative works: "Science of Culture", etc.

Julian Haynes Steward: • Viewpoint: Advocates the "multi-line theory of evolution", emphasizes the importance of the adaptive relationship between culture and environment, and believes that each human culture has its own development path, and there is no unified development path for human society. • Representative works: "On Cultural Change", etc.

Marshall Sahlins: • Viewpoint: Integrating White's "universal evolution theory" and Steward's "multi-line evolution theory", it is believed that cultural evolution has both a universal side and a specific side. • Representative works: "Stone Age Economics", etc.

Marvin Harris: • Viewpoint: Advocate "cultural materialism" and emphasize that the development of human society and culture is determined by human material production and economic foundation. All aspects of culture are closely related to human survival and reproduction. • Representative works: "Cultural Materialism", etc.

Sigmund Freud: (May 6, 1856 - September 23, 1939) • Viewpoint: Created psychoanalytic theory, emphasizing the influence of the subconscious on personality, believing that human behavior is driven by instinctive desires, especially sexual instinct. He also proposed that the personality structure consists of the id, ego, and superego, and that an individual's early experience plays a decisive role in personality development. . • Representative works: "The Interpretation of Dreams", "Introduction to Psychoanalysis", etc.

Abram Cardinal: (August 19, 1891 - January 20, 1981) • Viewpoint: Propose the concept of "basic personality structure", believing that it is determined by the primary system of society and then affects the secondary system of culture, emphasizing the interaction between personality and culture. • Representative works: "The Individual and His Society", "Psychological Boundaries of Society", etc.

Ruth Benedict (June 5, 1887 - September 17, 1948) • Viewpoint: It is advocated that culture determines personality, and different cultures shape different personality types and cultural models. By studying cultural models, differences in personality characteristics and social behaviors can be understood. • Representative works: "Cultural Pattern", "The Chrysanthemum and the Knife", etc.

Margaret Mead (December 16, 1901 - November 15, 1978) • Viewpoint: Pay attention to the influence of culture on the formation of adolescent personality, emphasize the role of cultural inheritance and social environment, and reveal the psychological and behavioral differences of adolescents in different cultures through cross-cultural research. • Representative works: "Samoan Adulthood", "Gender and Temperament of Three Primitive Tribes", etc.

Ralph Linton (April 27, 1893 - December 24, 1953) • Viewpoint: Proposes the concept of "crowd personality" and believes that cultural background shapes the representative personality of individuals in the community. It also emphasizes that personality and culture influence and shape each other. • Representative works: "The Study of Human Beings", "Culture Tree: The Cultural Background of Personality", etc.

Alfred Adler: (February 7, 1870 - May 28, 1937) • Viewpoint: The founder of individual psychology emphasizes the impact of inferiority complex and compensation on personality development. He believes that people have the motivation to pursue superiority and that social interest is an important criterion for measuring mental health. • Representative works: "Inferiority and Transcendence", "Study of Human Nature", etc.

Malinowski: 1884-1942. It is advocated that scientific anthropology should establish a prudent and rigorous cultural theory and conduct functional analysis of various cultures. It emphasizes that culture is a tool to meet the actual needs of human life, and different cultural functions constitute different cultural layouts. He focuses on the study of human biological needs and believes that the emergence and development of culture are to satisfy human basic physiological and psychological needs, such as food, reproduction, safety, etc. His representative works: "Navigators of the Western Pacific" published in 1922, through field surveys of the indigenous residents of the Trobriand Islands, detailed descriptions of cultural phenomena such as the Kula exchange and their functions in local society; "Navigators of the Western Pacific" published in 1944 Scientific Cultural Theory", which systematically elaborates on its functionalist cultural view.

Radcliffe Brown: 1881-1955. He believes that any culture is a complete system and advocates using sociological methods to study cultural phenomena, focusing on the study of "social structure" and emphasizing the interrelationship and function between various parts of the social structure. His theory is called "structural-functional theory" . He believed that the function of culture is to maintain the stability and balance of the social structure, and that the existence and development of cultural phenomena are determined by its role in the social structure. His representative works: "The People of the Andaman Islands" in 1922, which conducted an in-depth study of the social culture of the indigenous inhabitants of the Andaman Islands, and used functionalism methods to analyze their social structure and cultural phenomena; "The Structure and Function of Primitive Society" in 1952 ”, further elaborating on his structural-functionalist theory.

Evans Pritchard: (1902-1973) His main views and representative works are as follows: Main viewpoints: • Develop functionalist anthropology: Following Radcliffe Brown's structural functionalism, functionalist anthropology develops the dynamic balance theory of social anthropology. • Research on the kinship system: Point out the fission branch system in the kinship system. Taking the Nuer tribe in Sudan as an example, it shows that there are many fission branches in clans and regions. Each branch has a unique name, emotion and exclusive area. Political cohesion changes with the political Distance and structural distance changes. • Primitive cognitive research: Through the study of daily life in primitive society such as witchcraft, we will sort out the basic epistemological logic behind the pursuit of responsibility, and explore the differences between "primitive" and "scientific" thinking modes and their role in society. Representative works: • "The Witchcraft, Oracles and Witchcraft of the Yazan People": Published in 1937, through the study of the witchcraft and oracles of the Yazan people, and the way of thinking and social logic behind them, it changed the previous understanding of "Yazan people's witchcraft and oracles". The irrational view of "primitive" people • "The Nuer": Published in 1940, it is one of his famous works. It conducts in-depth research on the social structure, kinship system, and political organization of the Nuer people, and makes a contribution to the development of political anthropology. make important contributions. • "Kinship System and Marriage of the Nuer People": Published in 1951, it elaborates on the kinship system and marriage system of the Nuer people and their relationship with the social structure. • "The Religion of the Nuer": Published in 1956, it examines Nuer religious thought and rituals as a theological system, demonstrating its complexity and depth. • "Essays on Social Anthropology": Published in 1962, including many of his important papers and views on social anthropology. • "Theory of Primitive Religion": Published in 1965, it critically sorted out and summarized the theory of primitive religion and discussed the relationship between thought, ideology and society.

Max Gluckmann: (1911-1975), whose main views are as follows: • Conflict and social order: Focus on social conflict and its positive role in maintaining social order, believing that conflict is an inherent and necessary part of the social structure , through appropriate exposure and resolution of conflicts and contradictions, society can achieve self-adjustment and stability. • Social Holistic View: advocates viewing society as an organic whole. When studying specific social phenomena, it is necessary to consider its interrelationship and function with other parts of society, emphasizing the close connection between social structure and culture, so as to understand the operation of society. mechanism. • Anti-colonialism and social justice: Has a clear anti-colonial stance, pays attention to issues of inequality and oppression in colonial societies such as Africa, is committed to revealing the impact of colonial rule on local social culture, and advocates social justice. • Law and Society: Focus on the legal system of traditional African society, explore the role of law in society and its relationship with social customs, power structure and other factors. It is believed that law is an important means to maintain social order and resolve conflicts. Representative works: • "Rebel Ritual in Southeast Africa": Published in 1954, through the study of rebel rituals in tribal societies in southeastern Africa, it explores the relationship between social conflicts and social order, revealing the role of these rituals in regulating social conflicts and maintaining social order. role in social stability. • "Order and Rebellion in Tribal Africa": Published in 1963, it contains the author's many research papers on African tribal societies, further elaborating on the themes of social conflict, social order and cultural change, emphasizing the role of social structure and cultural factors in understanding importance in African society. • "Politics, Law and Ritual in Tribal Society": Published in 1965, it conducts an in-depth study of the political organization, legal system and ritual behavior in tribal society, and analyzes the interaction between these factors and their impact on social structure and society. Operational impact.

Raymond Firth: (1901-2002) His main views and representative works are as follows: He inherited and developed Malinowski's functionalist theory, emphasized the role of culture in people's lives, and paid attention to social systems such as The functions of family, kinship, religious and economic organizations in maintaining social structure and operation are studied to explain the social operating mechanism by studying the impact of cultural phenomena on the society as a whole and individuals. Holistic view of society and culture: Firth believes that society is an organic whole, and all parts are interrelated and interdependent. When studying social phenomena, it is necessary to comprehensively consider economic, political, religious, kinship and other factors to fully understand the operation of society and the inheritance and changes of culture. Representative works: • "The Primitive Economy of New Zealand Maori": published in 1929, which is the result of his doctoral thesis. The book uses economic anthropology methods to conduct in-depth research on the land ownership, economic principles and production and exchange methods of New Zealand Maori, laying the foundation for the development of economic anthropology. • "We, the Tikopia": Published in 1936, using Tikopia Island in the Solomon Islands as a field investigation point, it describes in detail the local kinship relationships, social structure, economic life and religious beliefs, etc., showing Polynesia The unique charm of culture is a classic work of modern social anthropology. • "Humanistic Types": written in 1938, republished in 1944, and a Chinese translation published by The Commercial Press in 1991. This book concisely explains the main principles of social anthropology and its role in the real world. It conducts a comparative analysis of different types of human societies from multiple dimensions such as culture, society, and economy, and provides information for understanding the diversity and commonalities of human societies. theoretical framework.

Emile Durkheim: 1858-1917. It is proposed that the object of sociological research is social facts, emphasizing the objectivity and externality of social facts, and their existence does not depend on individual consciousness and behavior. It is believed that there are two types of social solidarity: mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity. The development of social division of labor promotes the transformation of society from mechanical solidarity to organic solidarity. In "On Suicide", he pointed out that suicide has social characteristics, divided suicide into three basic types: egoistic, altruistic and anomic. He believed that social factors such as the degree of social integration have an important impact on the suicide rate. His representative works: "Theory of Social Division of Labor", "Theory of Suicide", "Basic Forms of Religious Life", "Sociological Research Methodology", etc.

Marcel Mauss: 1872-1950. He pays attention to the phenomenon of exchange and reciprocity in society and believes that in primitive society, gift exchange is not only an economic behavior, but also a social and moral behavior. It carries social relationships and obligations through the giving, receiving and reciprocation of gifts. , people establish and maintain social ties and group solidarity. His representative works: "The General Theory of Witchcraft", "The Nature and Function of Sacrifice", etc.

Franz Boas: Born in 1858, died in 1942, active from the late 19th to the mid-20th century. He proposed the theory of historical particularity, believing that each culture has its own unique development history, opposed the unilinear development and universal laws of culture, advocated cultural relativism, and criticized racial discrimination; he also proposed the theory of cultural zones, advocating the division of cultural centers according to the concentration of cultural elements. , cultural border area. His representative works: "The Primitive Mind", "Primitive Art", "Anthropology and Modern Life", "Race, Language and Culture", etc.

Alfred Kroeber: German-American anthropologist of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He advocated the "superorganism" nature of culture and believed that cultural development is not affected by individuals; he proposed the "Eighteen-point Manifesto", emphasizing that cultural research is about culture itself and its relationships, and that there are no universal laws for cultural development, only trends; he also proposed the shape of culture theory, focusing on the development of secondary morphologies. Representative works: "German Anthropology", "The Nature of Culture", "The Shape of Cultural Growth", etc.

Robert Lowe: American anthropologist of the same period as Boas. It emphasizes the diversity of world cultural development, criticizes the unilinear cultural evolution view of the classical evolution school, and believes that different cultures have their own characteristics and development trajectories and cannot be generalized. His representative works: "Early People's Society" and so on.

Edward Sapir: American anthropologist active in the early 20th century. He has made important contributions to the study of the relationship between language and culture. He believes that language has an important impact on the formation and development of culture, and that different languages ​​reflect different cultural models and ways of thinking. Representative works: "Language Theory" and so on.

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Edward Burnett Tylor: British anthropologist, considered the founder of the classical school of evolution. His representative work "Primitive Culture" is one of the important works of this school. Through comparative research methods, the book systematically studies the beliefs, customs, social organizations, etc. of primitive humans, and proposes important concepts such as "animism" , believes that human society gradually evolves from low-level to high-level.

Louis Henry Morgan: American ethnologist and historian of primitive society. His representative work "Ancient Society", in which he conducted in-depth research on the organizational form, marriage and family system, property system, etc. of primitive society based on a large amount of field investigation data, proposed that human society has evolved from the savage era through the barbaric era to the civilized era. The sequence of development is of great significance to understanding the evolution of early human society.

James George Fraser: Famous British anthropologist. His representative works include "The Golden Bough", "Totem Worship", "Totem Worship and Exogamy", "Belief in Immortality and the Worship of the Dead", etc. "The Golden Bough" explores the evolution of human thought from witchcraft to religion to science through comparative research on myths and religious rituals from around the world, and has had a profound impact on anthropology and cultural research; "Totem Worship" and " Totem Worship and Exogamy" is the picture It is an authoritative text in the field of totem research and conducts an in-depth discussion of the origin, development and significance of the totem system; "Belief in Immortality and Worship of the Dead" explores the eternal life of mankind through the study of the death concepts, beliefs and customs of primitive peoples. The origin and development of faith.

Robert Renulf Marrett: British anthropologist, his representative work is "Psychology and Folklore". This book clarifies the basic views and methods of anthropology, and explains that cultural change is a change in value orientation from a psychological perspective. process and other ideas; in "Anthropology" he proposed "pre-animism" or "pangenesis", revising Taylor's theory.

The contributions of Needham's research on structure and emotion: (1) Comparative study of national cultures in a specific region; (2) Structuralist study of kinship and marriage (3) Study of symbolism, especially symbolic dualism.

Van Baal's Women and Reciprocity: Reciprocity and Transaction in Human Exchange Acts.

As the founder of psychological anthropology, Xu Yangguang has made fruitful achievements in the field of cross-cultural comparative research. The following are his main studies: "Under the Shadow of the Ancestors: Chinese Culture and Personality" takes traditional Chinese society as the background and explores the influence of Chinese culture on personality formation. It points out that the personality characteristics of Chinese people are deeply shaped by cultural factors such as family and ancestor worship, and that individuals are protected by their families. Growing up under constraints and constraints, unique values ​​and behavior patterns were formed. "Chinese and Americans: Two Ways of Life" makes a systematic comparison of the cultures and personalities of China and the United States, and finds that the Chinese focus on the harmony of family, collective, and interpersonal relationships, while the Americans emphasize individualism, independence, and self-realization. This cultural difference has led to many differences in the lifestyles, family concepts, and social interactions between the two peoples. "Clan, Caste, and Society: A Comparison of Three Ways of Life in China, India, and the United States" further expands the scope of cross-cultural comparison, taking China's clan system, India's caste system, and the United States' community organizations as typical representatives of the three cultures. , in-depth analysis of their differences in social structure, interpersonal relationships, values, etc., revealing the diversity of people's lifestyles and social behaviors under different cultural backgrounds.

Redfield: (1897-1958) His main views:• Cultural continuum: In the 1930s, in his research on the changes from rural culture to urban culture, he distinguished folk society from urban society and viewed both As a continuum of civilization, it is believed that there is a continuous process of cultural change from folk society to urban society. • Big Tradition and Little Tradition: The concepts of big tradition and little tradition are put forward. The big tradition refers to the conceptual system constructed by social elites, including science, philosophy, ethics, art, etc.; the small tradition refers to the popular religion, morality, legends, folk art, etc. among the common people. The two influence and interact with each other. • Holistic research view: It is believed that social scientists trained in anthropology should start from understanding the "whole under investigation" and then describe the social relationship system. His representative works: • "Folk Culture of Yucatan": published in 1941, it is the result of his long-term investigation and research on the Yucatan region. It describes in detail many aspects of local folk culture, such as religious beliefs, customs and art forms, etc. . • "Small Communities": Published in 1955, it elaborates on its overall viewpoint on the study of small communities, emphasizing the study and understanding of human society from a holistic perspective, using small communities as the starting point to explore social relationship systems and other contents. • "Peasant Society and Culture": Published in 1956, it summarized his theoretical principles, studied peasant society and culture from an anthropological perspective, and discussed the status and role of farmers in the social structure and their cultural characteristics. No file selected.