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MindMap Gallery Metabolism and biological oxidation
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Metabolism and biological oxidation
This is a mind map about metabolism and biological oxidation, the entire process of material and energy exchange between organisms and the external environment. Including all chemical changes that substances undergo in the living body, referred to as metabolism.
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Metabolism and biological oxidation
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- Outline
Metabolism and biological oxidation
Metabolism
concept
Metabolism:
It is the entire process of material and energy exchange between organisms and the external environment. Including all chemical changes that substances undergo in the living body, referred to as metabolism.
Catabolism:
The breakdown of nutrients into energy and substances needed to provide life activities is called catabolism.
Anabolism:
Utilizing the structural elements of small molecules or macromolecules and converting them into the macromolecules needed for oneself is called anabolism, also known as biosynthesis
Function
Obtain needed substances from the environment
Provide energy required for life activities of organisms
Transform materials obtained from the outside world into the structural originals of its own composition
Assembling structural elements into organism-specific macromolecules
Synthesize or decompose biomolecules with various special functions in organisms
basic principles and rules
Metabolic processes are driven by a series of enzymatic reactions under mild reaction conditions
The overall profile of metabolism is characterized by: catabolism converges to a few end products, and anabolism branches to produce many products
The catabolic and anabolic pathways of the same substance are not simple reversible processes, but there are shared metabolic links
Various metabolic pathways are localized in different regions of the cell
Metabolism is the unity of material metabolism and energy metabolism. The conversion and transmission of energy are realized by some universal activation carriers.
Metabolism is regulated
The basic metabolic pathways of various organisms are highly conserved
Research methods
content
Determine the structure and function of enzymes and coenzymes involved in each metabolic reaction
Determine the structures, names and types of reactions of substrates, intermediate metabolites and end products in a metabolic pathway
Determine the regulatory mechanism of an enzymatic reaction
Materials: Drosophila, rat, mouse, sea urchin, Xenopus, pigeon, rabbit, chimpanzee, chlorella, corn, Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, red baker's enzyme, Tetrahymena, Escherichia coli phage
level
In vivo research
Using whole organisms, whole organs, or groups of microbial cells, etc.
ex vivo research
Using sections, homogenates or extracts of organs or tissues
method:
isotope tracing method
enzyme inhibitors
hereditary metabolic defects
NMR spectroscopy
Gas measurement method
Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry
Genetic Engineering
Metabolomics and Metabolomics
Genomics
Genome
All DNA in an organism
transcriptome
All RNA in organisms
Proteome
All proteins in living things
Metabolome
All low molecular weight metabolites of an organism during a specific physiological period
Research methods
Sample collection, sample preprocessing, separation and detection of metabolites, data preprocessing, data analysis
biological oxidation
basic concept
concept
The oxidation process of substances in living organisms is called biological oxidation. It mainly refers to the process in which energy is gradually released when sugar, fat, protein, etc. are decomposed in the body, and ultimately CO2 and H20 are generated.
stage
Sugars, lipids, and proteins are broken down into their basic building blocks (glucose, fatty acids, glycerol, and amino acids). At this stage, less energy is released, less than 1% of the total energy, and most of it is lost in the form of heat energy.
Glucose, fatty acids, glycerol, and amino acids undergo a series of enzymatic reactions to generate acetyl CoA. The energy released in this stage accounts for about 1/3 of the total energy, part of which is stored in high-energy chemical compounds
Acetyl CoA enters the tricarboxylic acid cycle and is completely oxidized to generate CO2, and undergoes four dehydrogenations at the same time: the removed hydrogen is transferred to oxygen through the respiratory chain to generate water, and a large amount of energy is released at the same time, part of which is stored in ATP for use by the body.
Features
Follow the general rules of redox reactions (oxygenation, dehydrogenation, electron loss)
enzymatic reaction
Mild reaction conditions (body temperature, near neutral pH)
Gradual reaction, gradual release of energy
When water is produced, ATP is produced (oxidative phosphorylation)
respiratory chain
concept
A series of enzymes or coenzymes on the inner mitochondrial membrane are arranged in a certain order to transfer hydrogen or electrons, which is called the electron transport chain. The electron transport chain is related to cellular respiration, so it is also called the respiratory chain
Main ingredients
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD): Coenzyme of various dehydrogenases, accepts 2H (2H 2e) removed from metabolites, and transfers it to flavoprotein (FP)
Flavoprotein (FP)
Prosthetic group: flavin mononucleotide (FMN)
Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)
Function: Catalyze the dehydrogenation of metabolites, and the removed hydrogen is accepted by FMN or FAD
Iron-sulfur protein (Fe-S)
Containing iron atoms and sulfur atoms, it transfers one electron at a time and is a single electron transfer body.
Iron-sulfur proteins mostly exist in complexes with FP or cytochrome b.
Ubiquinone (UQ, Q)
Lipid-soluble quinil, the side chain contains multiple isoprene units (mammalian Q10). The only non-protein electron carrier in the electron transport chain
cytochrome
Protein with heme as prosthetic group
Main types: a, a3, b, C, C1
bs, p450
Order
Complex I (NADH to Ubiquinone)
NADH: Q oxidoreductase or NADH dehydrogenase
Flavoprotein (FMN), iron-sulfur protein
Function: The hydrogen removed by NADH is transferred to Q via FMN and Fe-S proteins in complex I (with proton transfer)
Complex II
succinate dehydrogenase
Function: The hydrogen removed by succinic acid is transferred to Q via the FAD and Fe-S proteins in complex II
Complex III
Ubiquinone: cytochrome c oxidoreductase
Cytochrome bc, complex
Including: Fe-S, Cytb, Cytc,
Role: Transfer electrons from reduced Q to Cytc (with proton transfer)
Complex IV
cytochrome oxidase
Including: cytochrome a, a3 and enzymes with copper ions as prosthetic groups
Transfer electrons from cytochrome C to 1/2O2, activate oxygen to generate O2-, and finally combine with 2H+ in the mitochondrial matrix to generate H2O
ATP synthesis in mitochondria
ATP
High-energy compounds containing high-energy phosphate bonds
Energy substances that can be directly utilized by living organisms
How ATP is produced
Substrate-level phosphorylation: coupled with the dehydrogenation reaction, the process of directly transferring energy in high-energy metabolite molecules to ADP to generate ATP or GTP
When high-energy compounds release energy, they are accompanied by phosphorylation of ADP to generate ATP. Independent of electron transfer in the respiratory chain
Oxidative phosphorylation: The process of coupling ADP phosphorylation to generate ATP during the electron transfer process in the respiratory chain, also known as coupled phosphorylation
Metabolites are oxidatively dehydrogenated and transferred to oxygen through the respiratory chain to generate water. At the same time, energy is released, causing ADP to be phosphorylated to generate ATP. Oxidation and phosphorylation are coupled.
chemiosmosis hypothesis
The electron transport of the inner mitochondrial membrane has a proton pump function, which can expel protons from the matrix side to the outside of the inner membrane (complexes I, III, IV)
The inner mitochondrial membrane does not allow protons to flow back, creating an electrochemical gradient (transmembrane proton gradient and potential gradient) inside and outside the membrane.
The electrochemical gradient inside and outside the membrane drives protons from special channels back to the inner membrane matrix. The transmembrane process releases energy and drives ATP synthesis (ATP synthase).
adjust
The rate of oxidative phosphorylation is primarily regulated by the energy requirements of the cell (respiratory control)
When ATP consumption increases, ADP concentration is high and oxidative phosphorylation is accelerated.
The ATP/ADP ratio is an important factor in regulating the rate of oxidative phosphorylation
Regulation of thyroid hormones
Thyroid hormone activates Na-K-ATPase on the cell membranes of various tissues
Patients with hyperthyroidism (hyperthyroidism) have a high basal metabolic rate
inhibitor
respiratory chain inhibitors
Block electron transfer in a certain part of the respiratory chain to hinder oxidation
ATP synthase inhibitor
Inhibits ATP synthesis and affects electron transfer in the respiratory chain
uncoupling agent
Separate the two coupling processes of electron transport and ATP formation, only inhibiting ATP synthesis but not electron transport.
non-mitochondrial oxidative pathways
microsomal oxidation system
Monooxygenase system (mixed functional oxidase, hydroxylase)
One oxygen atom of catalyzed O2 is added to the substrate molecule (hydroxylation), and the other oxygen atom is reduced by H to H2O (H from NADPH H)
peroxisomal oxidation system
Oxisosomes: Found in animal liver, kidney, and small intestinal mucosal cells
Contains a variety of enzymes that catalyze the production of H2O2, and also contains enzymes that decompose H2O2
Mitochondrial diseases
Mitochondrial gene mutations
Mitochondria and reactive oxygen species
Mitochondria and apoptosis
Mitochondria and aging