Concept: Core products are competitively priced, but many additional factors cause prices to rise, while businesses choose to offer more premium services so that customers can benefit from a variety of services that they can tailor to their preferred needs. In the end, the price paid by the customer was higher than originally thought, but it met the customer's psychological expectations.

Representative companies: SAP, Ryanair, Amazon Web Services, Sega, Salesforce

Concept: The logic that users are responsible for business revenue is abandoned. Instead, the main source of revenue comes from third parties, which cross-fund any free or low-priced products that attract users. A very common example of this model is financing through advertising, where the customers attracted are valuable to the advertiser who finances the product. This concept promotes the idea of ​​"separating revenue from customers."

Representative companies: Ryanair, Skype, Apple iPhone/AppStore, LinkedIn Twitter

Concept: Revenue sharing is the practice of a business sharing revenue with its stakeholders, such as complementors or even competitors. Therefore, in this business model, advantageous assets are combined to create a symbiotic effect, where additional profits are shared with partners involved in expanded value creation. One party is able to capture a portion of the revenue from the other party, thereby adding value to its customer base.

Representative companies: Apple iPod/iTunes, Groupon, Apple iPhone/AppStore, Google, Amazon Kindle

Concept: The focus is on supporting others to successfully sell products and benefiting directly from successful transactions. Affiliates typically make money from some kind of pay-per-sale or pay-per-impression compensation. On the other hand, the company can gain access to a more diverse potential customer base without requiring additional active sales or marketing efforts.

Representative companies: Best Buy, Spotify, Dropbox, American Express, Pinterest

Concept: Ingredient branding describes a specific selection of ingredients, components, and brands from a specific supplier that will be included in another product. The product is then branded and advertised alongside the ingredient products, working together to add value to the customer. This projects positive brand associations and attributes onto the product and can increase the appeal of the final product.

Representative companies: Intel, Microsoft, Bosch

Concept: This model involves taking a competitor's product, taking it apart, and using this information to produce a similar or compatible product. Since large R&D investments are not required, these products can be offered at a lower price than the original product.

Representative companies: Bayer, Brilliance China Auto, Denner

Concept: Aikido is a Japanese martial art in which the attacker's strength is used against him or her. As a business model, Aikido allows companies to offer something that is diametrically opposed to the image and mindset of their competitors. This new value proposition attracts customers who like ideas or concepts that are contrary to the mainstream.

Representative companies: Nintendo, Swatch

Concept: The integrator controls most steps in the value-added process. Control over all resources and capabilities in terms of value creation lies with the company. Efficiency gains, economies of scope and lower dependence on suppliers lead to lower costs and can increase the stability of value creation.

Representative companies: Zara, JCDecaux, Aravind Eye Care System, Netflix, Amazon Store

Concept: Simple and inexpensive products developed within and for emerging markets are also marketed in industrial countries. The term "inversion" refers to the process by which new products are typically developed in industrial countries and then adapted to the needs of emerging markets.

Representative companies: General Electric, Nokia, Logitech, Renault, Hindustan Unilever

Concept: An auction is when a product or service is sold to the highest bidder. The final price is reached when the auction's specific end time is reached or when no higher bids are received. This allows the company to sell at the highest price acceptable to customers. Customers benefit from the opportunity to influence product prices.

Representative companies: Amazon Web Services, eBay, Lufthansa, Google

Concept: A layered player is a specialized company limited to providing one value-added step in a different value chain. This step is commonly offered in a variety of independent markets and industries. The company benefits from economies of scale and is generally more productive. Additionally, established special expertise can lead to higher quality processes.

Representative companies: ARM, American Express, Foxconn, Payback, Tetra Pak

Concept: The products are the same, the scale comes from high-frequency and high-stick users, and the profits come from a small number of high-value customers. It not only creates economies of scale, but also achieves profits, and also has a positive impact on the company's image.

Representative companies: Aravind Eye Care System, Warby Parker

Concept: Barter is a method of exchange in which goods are given to customers without the need for an actual monetary transaction. In return, they provide the sponsoring organization with something of value. The exchange does not have to show any direct connection, and each party places different emphasis on the exchange.

Representative companies: Procter & Gamble, Pepsi, Lufthansa

Concept: Collect user interest data (non-sensitive and non-private) through compliance methods, analyze it in a beneficial way and provide it for internal use or interested third parties, thereby creating new value and giving back to customers.

Representative companies: Youtube, Mozilla, Verizon Communication, Airbnb

Concept: A portion of the value created is transferred to the customer in exchange for a lower price for a service or product. This applies particularly to process steps that add relatively little perceived value to customers but incur high costs. Clients benefit from efficiencies and time savings while putting in their own efforts. This can also increase efficiency, as in some cases the customer can perform value-added steps in a faster and more goal-oriented manner than the company.

Representative companies: Car2Go, McFit, Amazon Web Services, CEWE Colore, Google

Concept: In the cash machine concept, the customer pays up front for the product sold to the customer before the company is able to pay the associated fees. This results in increased liquidity that can be used to pay down debt or fund investments in other areas.

Representative companies: Dell, Lufthansa, McFit, Groupon, American Express

Concept: Customers are locked into the supplier's world of products and services. Using another supplier is not possible without incurring significant switching costs, thus protecting the company from losing customers. This lock-in arises either from technical mechanisms or from substantial interdependence of products or services.

Representative companies: Amazon Web Services, Gillette, Lego, SAP, Nestle Nespresso

Concept: Instead of opening new branches, choose a partner whose branches can profit from integrating the company's products in a way that mimics the smaller store in another store (a win-win situation). Hosting stores benefit from more attracted customers and are able to generate ongoing revenue from the hosting store in the form of rentals. Hosting companies have access to cheaper resources such as space, location, or labor.

Representative companies: Levi's, Nestle Nespresso, Bosch, Tchibo, Deutsche Post

Concept: In this model, services or products from previously excluded industries are added to the offering, thereby leveraging existing critical skills and resources. Especially in the retail industry, companies can easily offer additional products and services that are not related to the primary industry they previously focused on. Therefore, additional revenue can be generated with relatively few changes to existing infrastructure and assets as more potential customer needs are met.

Representative companies: IKEA, CEWE Color, Starbucks, Lufthansa, Flyeralarm

Concept: Instead of focusing on blockbusters, major revenue is generated through the "long tail" of niche products. Individually, these neither require high volumes nor allow for high profits. If these products are available in a wide variety and in sufficient quantities, the profits from the resulting small sales can add up to a significant amount.

Representative companies: Spotify, Blockbuster, Google, YouTube, Apple iPod/iTune

Concept: A full-service provider provides comprehensive coverage of products and services in a specific area, integrated through a single point of contact. Provide clients with exceptional expertise to improve client efficiency and performance. By becoming a full-service provider, companies can prevent revenue losses by extending services and adding them to their offerings. In addition, close contact with customers can provide insights into their habits and needs to improve products and services.

Representative companies: Amazon, Web Services, Microsoft, Cisco, Flyeralarm, Abbot Downing

Concept: A product, project, or entire startup is funded by a group of investors who want to back the basic idea, usually over the Internet. If critical mass is reached, the idea will come to fruition and investors will receive special benefits, usually proportional to the amount of capital they provide.

Representative companies: Brainpool, Pebble Technology

Concept: The company's existing technological know-how and other available assets are not only used to produce its own products but are also made available to other companies. Therefore, idle resources can be used to generate additional revenue, not just those that come directly from the company's core value proposition.

Representative companies: BASF, Amazon Web Services

Concept: A solution to a task or problem is adopted by an anonymous group of people, usually over the Internet. Contributors receive a small reward or the chance to win prizes if their solution is selected for production or sale. Customer interaction and inclusion can foster a positive relationship with the company, resulting in increased sales and revenue.

Representative companies: Procter & Gamble, Cisco, General Electric

Concept: Customizing products through mass production once seemed like an impossible task. The modular product and production system approach enables efficient personalization of products. Therefore, individual customer needs can be met at competitive prices in the context of mass production.

Representative companies: Levi's, Dell, Netflix, Spotify, Lego Factory

Concept: Customers typically pay a fixed monthly or annual fee to gain access to a product or service. While customers mostly benefit from lower usage costs and general service availability, the company generates a more stable revenue stream.

Representative companies: SBB, Dropbox, Microsoft

Concept: Retain customers and ensure loyalty by providing value beyond the actual product or service itself (i.e. through incentive-based programs). The goal is to increase loyalty by creating an emotional connection or simply offering a special offer. Customers voluntarily bind themselves to the company, thereby protecting future revenue.

Representative companies: Marriott International, American Express, Walmart, Best Buy, Starbucks

Concept: Value creation focuses on what is necessary to deliver the core value proposition of a product or service, usually as basic as possible. Cost savings are shared with customers, often resulting in a customer base with lower purchasing power or willingness to buy.

Representative companies: Swatch, McDonald's, H&M, Aldi, Nokia

Concept: A company sells a wide range of off-the-shelf products and accessories under one channel/model. Generally speaking, there is a wide range of products but low prices. Due to the wide range offered, more customers are attracted and economies of scope provide an advantage to the company.

Representative companies: Amazon Store, Best Buy, H&M, IKEA

Concept: This model relies on the ability to transform an existing product or service into a digital variant, providing advantages over physical products, such as easier and faster distribution. Ideally, the digitization of a product or service is achieved without leveraging the value proposition offered to customers. In other words: the efficiencies and multiplication that digitalization brings do not reduce perceived customer value.

Representative companies: CEWE Color, Google, Skype, Dropbox, Wikipedia

Concept: In an open business model, cooperation with partners in the ecosystem becomes the core source of value creation. Companies pursuing open business models actively look for new ways to work with suppliers, customers or complementors to open and expand their businesses.

Representative company: Valve Corporation, Abril

Concept: Offer an affordable product or service that meets the needs of a customer base with lower purchasing power. The product generates a small profit but benefits from the higher sales figures that typically come with the size of the customer base.

Representative companies: IKEA, Hindustan Unilever, H&M, McDonald's, HomeBuy

Concept: Direct selling refers to a scenario in which a company's products are not sold through intermediary channels, but obtained directly from manufacturers or service providers. This way, the company skips retail margins or any additional costs associated with intermediates. These savings can be forwarded to customers and create a standardized sales experience. Additionally, this close contact improves customer relationships.

Representative companies: Dollar Shave Club, Lego, Hilti, American Airlines, American Express

Concept: In software engineering, the source code of a software product is not proprietary and can be freely accessed by anyone. Generally, this can be applied to any technical detail of any product. Others can contribute to the product, but it is also free to use as a sole user. Money is often earned through services that complement the product, such as consulting and support.

Representative companies: Mozilla, IBM, Google, Pebble Technology, Apple iPhone/AppStore

Concept: Used products are collected and sold elsewhere in the world or transformed into new products. The profit plan is basically based on low to no purchase price. The company's resource costs are virtually eliminated, while supplier waste disposal is either provided or the associated costs are reduced. This also addresses customers’ underlying environmentally conscious ideals.

Representative company: Freitag lab.ag

Concept: Traditional products or services are delivered exclusively through online channels, eliminating the costs associated with running a physical branch infrastructure. Customers benefit from greater availability and convenience, while companies are able to integrate their sales and distribution with other internal processes.

Representative companies: Warby Parker, Dell, Best Buy, Amazon Store, eBay

Concept: In this model, the company's focus is on its core competencies in the value chain. Other value chain parts are outsourced and actively coordinated. This allows companies to reduce costs and benefit from economies of scale with suppliers. Furthermore, a focus on core competencies can improve performance.

Representative companies: Groupon, Procter & Gamble, Richelieu Foods, Nike

Concept: Two-sided markets facilitate interactions among multiple, interdependent customer groups. As more groups, or more individual members of each group, use the platform, the value of the platform increases. The parties usually come from different groups, such as businesses and private interests.

Representative companies: American Express, Humble Bundle, Spotify, Facebook, Amazon Web Services

Concept: The value of a product or service increases with the customer experience it provides. This opens the door to higher customer demand and correspondingly increased charges. This means that the customer experience must be adapted accordingly, for example, by adjusting promotions or store renovations.

Representative companies: IKEA, Rolls-Royce, Lamborghini, Freitag lab.ag, Dollar Shave Club

Concept: Services or products are measured based on actual usage, and consumers pay based on actual consumption. Able to attract customers who want to benefit from additional flexibility, which may come at a higher price.

Representative companies: Flyeralarm, Google, Car2Go, Amazon Web Services, Mobility Carsharing

Concept: A strategy in which a company focuses on the upper levels of the social pyramid, allowing the company to differentiate its product or service from other products or services. High standards of quality or exclusive privileges mainly attract this type of customer. The necessary investments in these differentiations are met by the relatively higher prices that can be achieved, which generally generate higher profits.

Representative companies: Lamborghini, Porsche, Rolls-Royce, Lufthansa, Marriott International

Concept: Charge a single flat fee for a product or service, regardless of actual usage or time constraints. Users benefit from a simple cost structure, while the company benefits from a constant revenue stream.

Representative companies: Apple iPod/iTunes, Verizon Communications, McFit, SBB, Spotify

Concept: The buyer pays any desired amount for a given item, sometimes even zero. In some cases, a minimum floor price may be set, and/or a suggested price may be indicated as a guide to the buyer. Customers are allowed to influence prices, while sellers benefit from more attracted customers because individual willingness to pay is met. This is rarely exploited due to the existence of social norms and ethics, which makes it suitable for attracting new customers.

Representative companies: Flyeralarm, Google, Car2Go, Amazon Web Services, Mobility Carsharing

Concept: In user manufacturing, the customer is both a manufacturer and a consumer. For example, online platforms provide customers with the necessary support to design and sell products, such as product design software, manufacturing services, or online stores to sell products. Therefore, the company only supports its clients' causes and benefits from their creativity. Clients do not need to provide the required infrastructure to benefit from the potential of realizing entrepreneurial ideas. Revenue is then generated as part of the actual sales.

Representative companies: Lego Factory, Apple iPhone/AppStore, Nike, YouTube, Amazon Kindle

Concept: Fractional ownership describes the sharing of an asset class among a group of owners. Typically, assets are capital intensive but are only needed occasionally. While clients benefit from their rights as owners, they do not have to provide the entire capital alone.

Representative companies: Mobility Carsharing, HomeBuy

Concept: A white label manufacturer allows other companies to distribute their products under their brand so it appears as if they were manufactured by themselves. The same product or service is often sold by multiple marketers under different brands. This way, different customer groups can be satisfied with the same product.

Representative companies: CEWE Color, Google, Amazon Web Services, Richelieu Foods, Foxconn

Concept: The franchisor owns the brand name, products and corporate image, which are licensed to independent franchisees who assume the local operating risks. Revenue is a portion of franchisee revenue and orders. Franchisees benefit from access to a well-known brand, proprietary technology and support.

Representative companies: Denner, Renault, Shell, Levi's, Panera Bread Bakery

Concept: The price of a product is not based on physical value, but on the performance or valuable results it provides in the form of a service. Performance-based contractors are often strongly integrated into the customer's value creation process. Special expertise and economies of scale can reduce the costs of producing and maintaining products, which can be passed on to customers. An extreme variant of this model presents itself as a different operating scheme in which the product remains the property of, and is operated by, the company.

Representative companies: General Electric, Amazon Web Services, Rolls-Royce, Xerox, BASF

Concept: The use of sensors allows to provide additional services to physical objects, or completely new independent services. It is not the sensors that generate the main income, but the value of the data generated by the sensors that are compliant and reasonably applied. The possibility of real-time information can further strengthen the value proposition.

Representative companies: Google Nest, Procter&Gamble, Somfy, Streetline, Pansonic and Allianz Assist

Concept: A basic version of the product is offered for free in the hope that customers will eventually be persuaded to pay for a premium version. This free service can attract as many customers as possible to the company. The number of paying "premium customers" is usually smaller, which generates revenue, which also provides cross-financing for free services.

Representative companies: SlideShare, Apple iPhone/AppStore, Amazon Web Services, Linkedln, Hotmail

Concept: This pattern describes a company's decentralization strategy, thereby adding flexibility to the company's processes to become more customer-centric. To respond quickly and flexibly to new customer demands, any part of the value chain, including production and even research and development, can be affected.

Representative companies: Zara, Dell, Toyota

Concept: Basic products are cheap or given away for free. On the other hand, the consumables required to use or operate it are expensive and the margins are high. The initial product price lowers the customer's barrier to purchase, while subsequent recurring sales cross-finance. Often, these products are technically bound to each other to further enhance this effect.

Representative companies: Standard Oil Company, Amazon Kindle, Gillette, Nintendo, Hewlett-Packard

Concept: The imitation of traditional physical processes in a virtual environment, e.g., a virtual workspace. For customers to be able to interact with the process from any location or device. In exchange, customers pay for access to virtual services.

Representative companies: Mictosoft Teams, Amazon Web Services, DUFL, Dropbox, Bertelsmann-Udacty

Concept: Guaranteed availability of a product or service so that there is virtually no downtime. Customers can use the product as needed, minimizing the cost of downtime. The company leverages expertise and economies of scale to reduce operating costs and achieve these levels of availability.

Representative companies: McFit, Hilti, Dropbox, Google, SAP

Concept: Consumers don’t buy products, they rent them. Lowers the capital required to acquire the product. The company itself benefits from higher profits per product because it is paid for over the lease term. Both parties benefit from higher product utilization efficiency because there is no need to use less time, binding capital, or reducing each product.

Representative companies: Hilti, Dropbox, Car2Go, Spotify, Netflix

Concept: Through the use of sensors and the inclusion of IT structures, an object can generate commands on its own. This enables fully automated processes such as replenishment and increases the speed of interacting with objects. Customers are locked in, resulting in recurring revenue.

Representative companies: Miele WMH 721 WFS EditionConn@ct, FELFEL, HP Instant Ink

Concept: The point of sale of consumables is moved to the point of consumption. This creates a stronger lock-in and leads to higher customer retention. When the point of sale shifts away from competing products, consumers become less price sensitive.

Representative companies: Google Glasses, Amazon-Dash Corcept, Bird, Ubitricity, Amazon Alexa

Concept: Companies allow consumers to become producers themselves. Customers are integrated into the value chain and can profit from the products produced, while the company's production and administrative costs are lower. As consumers participate in production, the perceived value of the product increases.

Representative companies: YouTube, Amazon Managed Elockchain, Instagram, Easy Smart Grid